LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



T E \ \ \ \ 



Shelf -._M.49 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



COMMON SCHOOLS 



BY 

ROBERT C. METCALF 

Supervisor of Schools, Boston, Mass. 
AND 

THOMAS METCALF 

Of the Illinois State Normal University 



3><KC 




NEW YORK •:• CINCINNATI •:• CHICAGO 

AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



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Copyright, 1894, by 
AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY. 



MET. ENG. GRAM. 



|>rfnte5 b^' 

TKam. Uvison 

mew lorft, '01. S. m. 



PREFACE. 



Before beginning the study of grammar, pupils should 
be carefully trained in the use of language. Correctness 
and facility in speaking and writing are best gained by prac- 
tice ; but while it is true that habit, rather than a knowledge 
of syntactical rules, controls a speaker's or writer's use of 
English, yet, in one who claims to be a scholar, ignorance 
of the history and structure of his language is no more 
excusable than ignorance in any other department of knowl- 
edge. 

By the grammar of a language we mean the facts of the 
language. In teaching grammar, we should remember that 
pupils are to become acquainted with those facts, as far as 
possible, through their own efforts. Let the child become a 
discoverer, and let him experience the satisfaction that comes 
to every discoverer of truth. 

Grammar should be taught inductively. Pupils should 
be led, first, in the light of their own experience, to study 
the simple facts of language, and then to investigate the 
more difficult matters of construction and inflection until 
they arrive at the general laws which govern its structure. 
In other words, pupils should be helped to help themselves. 
And yet it is next to impossible to present inductive lessons 
throughout a text-book. Lessons must be prepared for 
classes of pupils; and no one but the teacher can know to 
what extent each child needs illustrative exercises, or when 
he is prepared to take the next step. 

This book is prepared on a plan somewhat different from 
that followed in most Grammars for schools. There are 
certain facts of grammar which must be learned before the 
mastery of other facts becomes possible. But although it 
is necessary, for example, to know something of the nature 
of nouns and verbs before beginning to analyze a sentence, 

3 



4 PREFACE. 

it is not necessary to teacli all that pertains to nouns and 
verbs and to tax the pupils at the outset with intricacies 
and difficulties of language beyond their grasp. Strict classi- 
fication of subjects demands such a course, but careful grada- 
tion forbids it. It will therefore be found that though each 
of the three parts into which this book is divided contains 
one central idea, its plan of development demands frequent 
repetition and reviews. 

Thus, in Part I., we have endeavored to lead the pupil, 
by easy steps, (1) to understand the usual constructions of 
sentences, and (2) to study the uses of words and to classify 
them as parts of speech. This part of the work can be 
done easily in a year; and should the pupil proceed no 
farther, he will have gained possession of the most essential 
facts concerning the language. 

In Part II. we call the pupil's attention to inflection, its 
extent and use; and also to the substitutes for inflection, 
which are peculiarly important in a language like ours. But 
as it is impossible to speak of inflection without discussing 
the parts of speech inflected, we find in Part II. frequent 
reviews of the matter in Part I. 

In Part III. the preceding work is again carefully re- 
viewed, and some of the more important difficulties are 
considered. Much attention is here given to analysis, and, 
in order to facilitate practice in this and to heighten its 
value, many carefully selected sentences are supplied, illus- 
trating almost every peculiarity of construction. 

In the preparation of this work, the authors have received 
help from valuable works on philology by Professors Earle, 
Morris, Lounsbury, and Whitney. They are also indebted 
to the excellent works on grammar by Dr. Bain and Pro- 
fessors Whitney, Meiklejohn, Tweed, Mulligan, and others. 

For a careful reading of our proof, our thanks are due 
to Miss Emma Fisher, of the Normal School at Bridgewater, 
Mass., and to Professor D. 0. S. Lowell, of the Latin School 
at Eoxbury, Mass. 

The authors will esteem it a favor if their attention is 
called to defects in the book, to the end that it may be 
improved. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Elementary Solnds {for Beference) 9 

PART I. 

Language, Oral and Written 13 

The Sentence 14 

The Two Parts of a Declarative Sentence 15 

Subject and Predicate 16, 17 

Analysis 18 

Arrangement of a Declarative Sentence 19 

Arrangement of an Interrogative Sentence 20 

Anaylsis of Interrogative Sentences 21 

Conipellatives 22 

Imperative Sentences 23 

Analysis 24 

Uses of Words in Sentences 25 

Nouns 26 

Nouns, Common and Proper 27 

Collective Nouns 29 

Review Exercise 31 

Pronouns 32 

Antecedents of Pronouns 33 

Personal Pronouns 34, 35 

Compound Personal Pronouns 36 

Adjectives 38, 39, 40, 41 

General Review 41 

Articles 42 

Appositives 43 

Verbs - . . . . . 45, 46 

Verb-Phrases 47 

Transitive Verbs and Intransitive Verbs 48, 49 

Complete Verbs and Incomplete Verbs 50, 52, 53 

Be as a Complete Verb 55 

5 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Review Exercise , .66 

Adverbs 57 

Adverbs modifying Verbs 58 

Adverbs modifying Adjectives 59 

Adverbs modifying Adverbs 60 

Classification of Adverbs 60, 62 

Phrases 63, 64 

Prepositions 65 

Conjunctions 67 

Sentences, Simple and Compound 69, 70 

Clauses, Adjective and Adverb 71 

Noun Clauses 72 

Clausal Analysis 73 

Conjunctive Pronouns 75 

Analysis and Synthesis 76 

Interjections 77 

Use determines Classification 78 

Quotations, Direct and Indirect 79 

Compound Words 81 

Analysis 83, 84 

Analysis and Parsing 86 

Selections for Analysis and Parsing 87 

PART II. 

General Review . 91, 92 

Inflection 93 

Number 94, 96 

Irregular Plurals of Nouns ." . 97 

Number of Personal Pronouns 99 

Gender 101, 102 

Gender of Personal Pronouns 103 

Person 104 

Case 106, 107 

The Possessive Case 110 

Cases of Personal Pronouns .112 

Cases of Appositives 113 

Review 114 

Classes of Adjectives 115 

Numeral Adjectives 116 

Adjectives 118 

Comparison of Adjectives 119,121 



CONTENTS. T 

PAGE 

Irregular Comparison of Adjectives . 123 

Comparison of Adverbs 124 

Verbs, Present and Past Tenses 125, 126 

Tlie Present Tense, Time Indefinite ....... 128 

The Future Tense 129 

Participles, or Verbal Adjectives 131 

Infinitives, or Verbal Nouns . ' 133, 134 

Verbal Nouns and Verbal Adjectives Contrasted .... 136 

Verbs, Regular and Irregular 138 

Tables of Irregular Verbs 140 

Verbs, Complete and Incomplete 146 

Verbs, Copulative and Attributive 146, 148 

The Active and the Passive Voice 149 

Intransitive Verbs have no Passive Voice 150 

Formation of the Passive Voice 152 

Modes 154 

Conjugation 156, 157 

Conjugation of the Verb Be 159 

The Ancient, or Solemn, Form 161 

Conjugation of the Verb Have 162 

Conjugation of the Verb Move 163 

Agreement 165, 167 

Word Building 168 

Derivatives 170, 171, 172 

Selections for Analysis and Parsing 172 

PART III. 

The Sentence . . . . , 177 

Classification of Sentences 179 

Analysis of Simple Sentences . 181 

Analysis of Complex Sentences 183 

Review of Nouns 186 

Abstract Nouns 187 

Inflection of Nouns 188 

Adjectives 189 

Personal Pronouns 190 

Conjunctive Pronouns 192, 194, 195 

Personal and Conjunctive Pronouns Contrasted . . . .196 

Compound Conjunctive Pronouns 197 

Interrogative Pronouns and Interrogative Adjectives . . . 199 

Adjective Pronouns 201 



CONTENTS. 



'A(;e 



Conjunctive Adverbs 208 

Analysis 205 

Phrases 206 

Noun Clauses 209,210,211,213 

Review of Clauses 215 

Ixestrictive and Non-Kestrictive Clauses 216 

Auxiliaries 217, 218, 220 

Potential Verb-Phrases 221 

Revievi' of Tenses 222 

Perfect Tenses 223 

Subjunctive Mode 225 

Intinitives 229, 231 

Conjugations 232 

Ancient Forms of \'^erbs 240 

Review of Conjugations 241 

The Objective Noun Clause Abridged 241 

Indirect Objects of Verbs 243 

Objective Attribute 245 

Different Forms of Objects 246 

Coordinate Connectives 248 

Correlative Conjunctions 249 

Compound Elements 250 

Subordinate Connectives . 252 

Rules for Spelling 254 

Use determines Classification 256 

Derivatives 259, 260, 261, 262, 263 

Helps to Punctuation .*" . . 264 

Punctuation 269 

Selections for Analysis and Parsing 271 

Lists of Prefixes 276 

Lists of Suffixes 278 

Latin and Greek Roots 280 



FOR REFERENCE. 

ELEMENTARY SOUNDS. 

The English alphabet contains twenty-six letters, and from 
these few letters all the words in the written language are 
formed. 

Letters are divided into two classes ; vowels and consonants.^ 

A vowel is an elementary sound made through an open posi- 
tion of the organs of speech ; as, a, ah, oh, cave. 

A consonant is an elementary sound made by means of a 
closure, or a partial closure, of some of the organs of speech; 
as in the hrst sound of the words vail, base, my, nay, ray. 

The live letters a, e, i, o, u, commonly represent open, or 
vowel sounds ; hence, these letters themselves are called vowels. 
^V and y are also called vowels, except when immediately fol- 
lowed by a vowel in the same syllable. Thus id and y are 
vowels in cow, few, hoy, type, forty, myrtle; in loin, tivin, yes, 
they are consonants.- 

LONG VOWELS AND SHORT VOWELS. 

The name sounds of the vowels, — a, e, i, o, u, — as heard in 
dim, eel, Ice,^ own, use,^ are called long, while the sounds repre- 

1 More properly, however, vowels and consonants are sounds. 

2 When not silent, the letters i and u, also, wlien followed by a vowel 
sound in the same syllable, represent consonants ; as in onion (yun), clothier 
(yer), quit (kwit), language (gwej). 

3 I in ice really represents two vowels; viz. the sound of a in aryn, and that 
of i in in (aice) . In like manner, u in muse represents i and do closely joined. 
Hence long i and long u, like oi and on, are sometimes called diphthongs. 

4 It is important to note that the diphthong w, called "long?/," is always 
preceded by a consonant in the same syllable. Even when " long u " seems 



10 FOR REFERENCE. 

sented by the same letters in am, hid, in, on, up, are called 
short or explosive. The vowels heard in urn, fare, arm, all, 
and ooze, are also long; and Ave must class as short vowels 
those heard in ask andj9M^. 

Five letters are thus seen to represent seventeen different 
vowels ! 

Two vowels when heard in one syllable are called a diphthong ; 
as, oi in hoil, and ou in out. 

CONSONANTS. 

Of the twenty-five consonant sounds in the language, seven are 
represented each by two letters. A combination of two letters 
to represent a single sound is called a digraph. The seven 
consonant digraphs are: ch, as in chin; sh, as in shine; th, as 
in this; th, as in thi7i; zh,^ as in azure; tvh, as in when; and ng, 
as in song. 

The consonant sounds are divided into subvocals (or sonants) 
and aspirates (or non-sonants). 

Aspirates are breaths, not voiced elements. 

Subvocals are made with sound, and not with breath alone. 

There are ten aspirates, as heard at the opening of the fol- 
lowing words : pin, tin, chin, kin, Jin, thin, sin, shin, hint, whinny. 

An aspirate and a sub vocal are called cognate (kindred) 
when both are formed with the same position of the lips, or the 
same position of lip and teeth, tongue and teeth, or tongue and 
palate. 

There are eight pairs of cognate consonants, viz. : h andjp, 
as in cab, cap ; d and t, as in kid, kit ; j and ch, as in ridge, 
rich; g and k, as in hag, hack; v and/, as in save, safe; th and 
th, as in hreathe, hreath; z and s, as in lose, loose; zh and sh, as 
in rouge, ruche. 

to begin a syllable, as in the words use, manual, the consonant rj is heard 
before tlie u (yuse, manyual). This explains why we say " a unit," " a useful 
man," though we say " an urn," " an uncle." See p. 43, foot-note. 

1 Called "■ the sound of zh," though this digraph occurs in no English word. 



FOR REFERENCE. 11 

The subvocals, I, m, n, r, and ng, because of their ready union 
with other consonants, are called liquids. 

The following is a table of the consonant sounds : — 

Aspirates : j:>, t, ch, k, f, th, s, sh, | g o fh '^^^^ 

Subvocals : b, d, j, g, v, th, z, zh, ) S*^ 2/? ^^5 h ^? ^^j ^? '^9- 



ASSIMILATION. 

In many words ending in ed, the d represents the sound of 
its cognate t. This is because the immediately preceding sound 
is aspirate, as in sijoped, starched, lacked, laughed, missed, 
rushed. Here the d is said to assimilate to the preceding 
consonant, — to become, like it, aspirate. Observe a like change 
in the z of quartz, chintz. 

S is regarded as aspirate ; and it is so in soon, moose, laps, 
nets, necks, truths, etc. But we hear it as z when it is immedi- 
ately preceded by a sub vocal, thus : RoVs, begs, bids, bathes. 
This change, also, is called assimilation. 



. COALESCENCE. 

The termination ed is added to thousands of words without 
increasing the number of syllables, thus: release, released; 
differ, differed; agree, agreed; rob, robbed. 

It is otherwise when the original word ends in the sound of 
either t or d. Now a syllable must be added, as in nod, nodded; 
delight, delighted; etc. The reason is plain: td and dd, as 
syllables, cannot be pronounced. 

Akin to the foregoing are words ending in the sound of ch, 
s, sh, j, or z, if we attempt to add s. The combinations, chs, 
ss, shs, js, zs, cannot well be uttered. We say the s will not 
coalesce (unite) with the preceding consonant. The difficulty 
is overcome by adding es instead of s, as in church, churches; 
kiss, kisses; rush, rushes; etc. See p. 95. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Part I. 

I. LANGUAGE, ORAL AND WRITTEN. 

Language is the expression of thought in words, and is 
either oral or written. 

Oral language is made up of a succession of sounds, 
called words. Words in English are, in almost every 
instance, different from those which in other languages 
represent the same ideas. 

"Written language is made up of letters, which usually 
represent sounds. These letters are grouped into words, 
each word, as in oral language, suggesting an idea. 

In the English language there are three words that 
have only one letter each ; viz. a^ /, and 0. 

Some words can be pronounced with one impulse of 
the voice ; as, house^ shop^ pen, ball. Such a word 
lias but one syllable, and is called a monosyllable (one 
syllable). 

Some words are pronounced with two impulses of the 
voice ; as, sug-gest, writ-ing, hreak-fast. Such words are 
dissyllables (two syllables). 

Words having three syllables are trisyllables (three sylla- 
bles) ; as, hem-i-sphere, an-ec-dote, spec-u-late. Words of 
more than three syllables are polysyllables (many sylla- 
bles) ; as, dic-tion-a-ry, cor-re-spond-ent. 

13 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 



II. THE SENTENCE. 

We express our thoughts with words, which may be 
either oral or written. 

A group of words expressing a complete thought is a 
sentence. 

Which of the four groups of words below are sentences, 
and why ? Which one is not a sentence, and why not ? 

1. Bees make honey. 3. Are you happy? 

2. The honest farmer. 4. The boys are playing. 

A written sentence should be followed by a full pause 
(.?!). 

A sentence may be — 

(1) A statement ; as, The hoys study diligently. 

(2) A question ; as. Do the hoys study diligently ? 

(3) A command or an entreaty; as, Boys^ study dili- 
gently, Siste7% forgive me ! 

A sentence that makes a statement is a declarative 
sentence ; one that asks a question is an interrogative 
sentence ; and one that expresses a command or an 
entreaty is an imperative sentence. 

Exercise. 

How do we express our thoughts? What is language? What is 
oral language? What is written language? Of what are oral words 
formed ? Of what are written words formed ? What three words in 
English have but one letter each? What are monosyllables? Give 
examples. What are dissyllables? trisyllables? polysyllables? Give 
examples. 

What does a letter commonly represent? What does a word sug- 
gest? What does a sentence express? 

Write two declarative sentences; two interrogative; two impera- 
tive. 



TWO PARTS OF A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE. 15 

III. THE TWO PARTS OF A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE. 

Exercise. 
Make complete sentences of the following. 

1. is often called Green Erin. 

2. was succeeded by President Madison . 

3. settled on Manhattan island. 

4. raised the laborers' wages. 

5. is heavier than iron. 

6. is almost as tall as the father. 

7. are the three most populous cities in the country. 

8. was often called the Father of his Country. 

9. The scenery along the Hudson . 

10. The sailors who came with Columbus . 

11. Robinson Crusoe . 

12. Anthracite coal . 

13. Cyclones . 

14. One hundred soldiers . 

15. Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes . 

You will notice, if you think carefully, that the sentences 
which you have just made consist of two parts, viz.: — 

(1) A part which makes an assertion or declares some- 
thing. 

(2) A part which names and sometimes describes the 
object about which the assertion is made. 

My father is an old man. 

In this sentence the words which make an assertion are, 
is an old man; the words which name and point out the 
object about which the assertion is made, are, my father. 

The part of a sentence which represents the thing of 
which something is said, is the subject. 

The part of a sentence which represents what is said 
of the thing named by the subject, is the predicate. 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

IV. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 

Examine the following sentence. 

Mr. Monroe bought the boat for a hundred dollars. 

In this sentence the speaker has in mind several objects, 
viz. the boat, Mr. Monroe, and the hundred dollars ; but 
the assertion bought the boat for a hundred dollars is made 
only of Mr. Monroe. In separating a sentence, therefore, 
into its two principal parts, it is well to look (1) for the 
words making the assertion, and (2) for the name of the 
thing about which the assertion is made. 

Exercise. 

(First oral and then written.) 

(<2) In each of the following sentences, what assertion 
is made ? 

(5) Of what is it made ? 

In naming the two parts of these sentences, be sure, for 
the present, that the parts are made to include all the 
words of the sentence. 

1. This sheet of paper is spoiled. 

2. My pencil must be sharpened. 

3. The ribbon is lost from Mary's hair. 

4. The lame boy fell on the ice. 

5. The beautiful canary is dead. 

6. The white sails of the great ship hung useless in the still air. 

7. A true man will sacrifice the low pleasures of an idle life. 

8. A letter from cousin Mabel was received this morning. 

9. George ^Vashing•ton died in 1799. 

10. A little hard study every day will accomplish wonders. 

11. Boys are seldom hurt by hard study. 

12. The customs of the Greeks were far different from ours. 

13. Alexander's fame has come down to us. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 17 

V. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE (continued). 

Exercise. 

To retreat ivas impossible. 

In this sentence ^vas impossible is the predicate, because 
these words make the assertion ; to retreat is the subject, 
because these words name that of which the assertion is 
made. 

What was impossible ? Ans\ '' To retreat." 



(a) In the following sentences, name first the predicate 
and then the subject, giving a reason each time for your 
conclusion. 

(K) Frame a question including the predicate which 
shall require the subject as an answer. 

1. Beggars must not be choosers. 

2. The furniture is arranged very neatly. 

3. A gull was seen skimming over the water. 

4. The horse sometimes lives to the age of thirty years. 

5. Living for self alone is unworthy. 

6. Birds of a feather flock together. 

7. That beautiful watch was bought at Noyes's store. 

8. Fine feathers do not make fine birds. 

9. A man without a purpose is like a ship without a rudder. 
10. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. 

A subject combined with a predicate forms a proposition. 

Examples : The girl studies. Is the boy idle? 

One proposition may be a complete sentence, or a 
sentence may comprise tAvo or more propositions. 

Example: The way was long, the wind was cold, 
The minstrel was infirm and old. 

MET. ENG. GRAM. — 2 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 



VI. ANALYSIS. 

When we separate a sentence into its two principal 
parts, subject and predicate, we partially analyze the sen- 
tence. Usually, either the subject or the predicate, and 
sometimes both, may also be analyzed. 

Separating a sentence into the parts of -which it is composed 
is analyzing it. 

Exercise I. 

SUBJECT. PREDICATE. 

That beautiful town \ has been destroyed by a freshet. 



Copy the following sentences, and analyze each one so 
far as to separate the subject from the predicate by a verti- 
cal line, as in the example above. 

1. The mercury stands very high to-day. 

2. A beautiful river runs through the valley. 

3. A thick, black smoke still rises from the ruins. 

4. The horse ran away with the carriage. 

5. The top of the tower is a hundred feet from the ground. 

6. The point of my pen is broken off. 

7. General Sherman was a brother of Senator Sherman of Ohio. 

8. Boys with studious habits are sure to succeed. 

The sentences used in this exercise are statements, and 
the arrangement is (1) the subject and (2) the predicate. 

This order, which is called the natural order of a sen- 
tence, is not always followed. 

Exercise 2. 
Write answers to the following questions. 

1. What is the subject of a sentence? the predicate? 

2. The subject and predicate together make what? 

3. If the subject be taken from a sentence, what will remain ? 

4. If the predicate be taken from a sentence, what will remain? 



ARRANGEMENT OF A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE. 19 

Vn. ARRANGEMENT OF A DECLARATIVE SENTENCE. 

Exercise. 

On the fourth of July, 1776, the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence was signed. 

The Declaration of Independence \ tvas signed on the fourth 
of July^ 1776. 

{a) Rewrite, as above, each of the following sentences, 
placing the subject before the predicate. 

(ft) Separate the subject and predicate by a vertical line. 

1. These books, Mary left on the stair. 

2. Soon after this, came a moan from the sick-room. 

3. In the autumn, these leaves will be beautifully tinted. 

4. By the wayside, the poor wanderer fell. 

5. With a slow and noiseless footstep, conies the messenger. 

6. In that secure village, and in one of those very houses, lived a 

simple, good-natured fellow, by the name of Rip Van Winkle. 

7. After turning from the main road, we came in sight of the 

cottage. 

8. In a long ramble, on a fine day, Rip scrambled to the top of the 

mountain. 

9. Above the book-cases, were arranged a great number of portraits 

of ancient authors. 

10. Now and then, one of these persons would write something on a 

slip of paper. 

11. Wondrous truths, God has written in the stars above. 

12. In the bright flowerets under us, stands the revelation of His love. 

13. Bright and glorious is that revelation. 

14. Down the broad valley, fast and far the troubled army fled. 

15. Aloud from cottage roofs, the warbling bluebird sings. 

16. Merrily sounds, from the threshing floor, the busy flail. 

17. O'er the vale, with gentle swell, the music of the village bell came 

sweetly to the echo-giving hills. 

18. On sunny slope and beechen swell. 
The shadowed light of evening fell. 

19. Far upward in the mellow light, rose the blue hills. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

Vni. ARRANGEMENT OF AN INTERROGATIVE 
SENTENCE. 

In the foregoing lessons we have chiefly studied sen- 
tences that are declarative. 

We have found that they may be separated into parts, 
subject and predicate, and that the natural order of these 
parts is (1) the subject and (2) the predicate. 

(1) What kind of sentence is the following? 

The river is deep. 

(2) Separate its subject and predicate by a line. 

(3) Write the sentence so that it will ask a question. 

(4) What change have you made in the order of the 
words ? 

(5) In the question, can you separate the subject from 
the predicate by a vertical line ? Give your reason. 

(6) What is the natural order of a declarative sentence ? 

(7) How do the sentences below differ in arrangement ? 

The river is deep. (Declarative.) 
Is the river deep P (Interrogative.) 

In changing a sentence from the declarative to the 
interrogative form, it is often necessary to introduce the 
word do (does^ did'). 

Examples: The pupil studies hai'd. (Declarative.) 

Does the pupil study hard ? (Interrogative.) 

What is the order of arrangement in the interrogative 
sentence ? How does it differ from that in Is the river deep ? 

Some interrogative sentences have the arrangement of 
declarative sentences. 

Examples: Who will lend me his knife? 
Which man was hurt? 
What brinos you here? 



ANALYSIS OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 21 

Exercise. 
Declarative, A monument was erected on the battlefield. 
Interrogative, Was a monument erected on the battlefield P 

In the last sentence the order is, (1) a part of the predi- 
cate (was), (2) the subject (a monument), and (3) the rest 
of the predicate (erected on the battlefield). This is the 
usual order of an interrogative sentence. 



(a) Change the following sentences from the declarative 
to the interrogative form, and note the change in the order. 

(b) Write an answer to each question. 

1. Necessity is the mother of invention. 

2. Each exercise must be well written. 

3. The park contains forty-eight acres. 

4. This bud may prove a beautiful flower. 

5. I am reading Shakespeare. 

6. Sweet are the uses of adversity. 

IX. ANALYSIS OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 
Exercise. 

(First oral and then written.) 

Change each of the following sentences from the inter- 
rogative to the declarative form, and then separate the 
subject from the predicate by a vertical line. 

1. Are the sea and the sky equally beautiful? 

2. Was not the Columbia an unsafe steamer? 

3. Is Ireland's misery wholly due to England's oppression ? 

4. Were these eaglets taken from the cliff ? 

5. Are the floods very destructive ? 

6. Was the horse afraid of the electric cars ? 

7. Should all florists be lovers of their occupation ? 

8. Were the colors of the autumn leaves very brilliant? 

9. Is not the elm your favorite tree? 



22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 



X. COMPELLATIVES. 

(1) When I say, Jo/m, will you shut the door ? what is 
the word Jolin used for? 

(2) Under what circumstances might the name as well 
be omitted? 

(3) Is the sentence interrogative or imperative ? 

(4) What is the subject of the sentence ? 

(5) What is the predicate of the sentence ? 

The word John is used in the sentence to call, or com- 
pel, the attention of the person addressed. As you have 
seen, it forms no part of either subject or predicate, but is 
independent of the sentence. 

The word used to call, or compel, the attention of the 
one addressed, is called the compellative.^ It should be 
separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma or 
commas. 

Exercise. 

In each of the following sentences, name (a) the kind 
of sentence, (h) the compellative, (<?) the predicate, and 
(cZ) the subject. 

1. Harry, what answer did your father give? 

2. My son, you have done right. 

3. Will you stand for your rights, my braves ? 

4. Venerable men, you have come down to us from a former gen- 

eration . 

5. Thou, O Lord, shalt endure forever. 

6. Cassius, I am armed in honesty. 

7. Hast thou courage, man ? 

8. Sweet Land of Liberty, of thee I sing. 

9. Consistency, thou art a jewel. 

10. O night and storm and darkness, ye are wondrous strong. 

1 The word compellative has heen adopted from De Sacy's " General 
Grammar," and seems better chosen than nominative indepeiident. 



IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. 23 



XT. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES. 

Imperative sentences may be expanded into declarative 
sentences without changing their meaning. Study your 
lessons means, I desire (wish, insist) that you study your 
lessons. Do help me means, / beg (insist, desire) that you 
help me. 

On the other hand, shortening the declarative sentence 
into the imperative makes it more emphatic. Shut the door 
is a shorter and more emphatic way of saying, I desire 
that you will shut the door. 

As commands and entreaties are always made to some 
one who is supposed to be present, the name, or word 
standing for the name, of the one addressed is usually 
omitted. 

I'rust (thou) in the Lord with all thine heart. 

In this sentence thou (understood after trusty is the 
subject. 

The word, whether expressed or understood, which stands 
for the name of the person or thing addressed, is the sub- 
ject of the sentence. 

In imperative sentences the compellative must not be 
confounded with the subject. The compellative forms no 
part of either subject or predicate. 

Lord^ help (thou) us to know thy ways. 

In this sentence. Lord is the compellative, and thou 
(understood after the word help') is the subject. 

Flow gently^ sweet Afton. 

Here, siveet Afton is the compellative, and thou (under- 
stood after the word flow) is the subject. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

Exercise. 

In the following sentences, point out (a) the compella- 
tive, (6) the predicate, and (c) the subject. 

1. Go to thy rest, fair child. 

2. Touch us gently. Time ! 

3. Let me, madam, be your servant. 

4. Break, O Sea, on thy cold, gray stones ! 

5. O mighty Caesar, dost thou lie so low ? 

6. Give me your hand, Bassanio. 

7. Close not, O Freedom, thy lids in slumber. 

A declarative, an interrogative, or an imperative sen- 
tence may be used to express emotion, surprise, etc. It 
is then called an exclaniator}^ sentence. 

Examples : 

To-day the vessel shall be launched ! (Exclamatory declarative.) 
Who would believe it to be true ! (Exclamatory interrogative.) 
Just see what a plight we are in ! (Exclamatory imperative.) 

An exclamatory sentence is one that is used to express 
strong feeling ; it is followed by an exclamation point. 

XII. ANALYSIS. 

Exercise. 

(a) Tell whether each of the sentences below is declara- 
tive, interrogative, imperative, or exclamatory. 
(5) Point out the compellative if there is one. 
((?) Name the predicate and the subject. 

1. The mountains of California contain gold. 

2. The slaves were set free in 1863. 

3. How many miles an hour does light travel ? 

4. Strike for your altars and your fires ! 
.5. The palm tree grows in hot countries. 

6. Now comes Venus in all her glory ! 

7. Shall we gather strength by irresolution and inaction? 



USES OF WORDS IN SENTENCES. 25 

8. We are ruined by bad habits. 

9. Dare to do right ! 

10. He hath the maimers, the face, and the outward form of a 

Flemish butcher. 

11. Laugh'st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn! 

12. Sail on, O Union, strong and great. 

13. Should I have answered Caius Cassius so ? 

14. In the morning we shall start on our journey. 

15. Friends, 1 come not here to talk. 

16. Is this the part of brave men? 

17. Has the verdict of the jury been rendered? 

18. Then came a murmur of dissent. 

19. This unfertile brain cannot devise so wise a scheme. 



XIII. USES OF WORDS IN SENTENCES. 

Every word in a sentence may be classified according 
to its use. Before attempting to classify words, there- 
fore, it will be necessary to study their uses. 

Exercise. 
A good hoy obeys his parents. 

In this sentence, boy is used to represent the person 
spoken of ; obeys is used to tell or assert what the boy did ; 
parents is used to point out the persons that the boy obeys ; 
good is used to describe the boy ; his is used to prevent the 
repetition of the word boy. 



Tell the use of each word in the following sentences. 

1. Charles studies his reading lesson. 

2. George had two large oranges. 

3. This gay summer brings us many pleasures. 

4. Evil communications corrupt good manners. 

5. Beautiful dwellings stood there formerly. 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

6. Hope lightens our heaviest burdens. 

7. The pupils obeyed their teacher's directions. 

8. Bad habits ruin us. 

9. The sunshine is a glorious birth. 

10. True hope is swift. 

11. Care and diligence bring luck. 

12. Constant complaints never get pity. 

Note to the Teacher. — Exercises similar to the preceding 
should be given until the pupils become skillful in telling the uses 
of words in sentences. 

Words that occur in phrases and clauses should be grouped, and 
the pupil should be asked to tell the use of the group rather than of 
the separate words of the group. Thus, — 

The child ran into the garden for the ball which he had lost. 



XIV. NOUNS. 

Although there are thousands of words in the language, 
yet all of them may be included in eight classes called 
Parts of Speech. 

As the classification of a word depends upon its use, 
and as some words may be used in more than one way, it 
follows that the same word may be found in more than 
one class. 

A -word, or a group of words, used as a name is a noun. 

Examples : A is the first letter of the alphabet. Thou is a mono- 
syllable. Boston is the capital of Massachusetts. 
" Uncle Tom's Cabin " was written by Mrs. Harriet 
Beecher Stowe. 

A noun denoting but one person or thing is in the 
singular number ; as, man^ hoy^ girl. A noun denoting 
more than one person or thing is in the plural number ; 
as, men^ ^oys^ girls. 



NOUNS, COMMON AND PROPER. 27 

Exercise. 
The rain falls upon the roof. 

In this sentence, rain is the name of water falling in 
drops from the clouds. Boof is the name of the covering 
of a building. 

(a) In the following sentences, what words are used as 
names, and of what are they names ? 
(J) Which are in the plural? 

1. General Washington commanded the army in the Revolution. 

2. Some of the mountains in Asia are very high. 

3. The teacher who was ill is now in school. 

4. John may shut the door, and put some wood on the fire. 

5. Robert Burns, the poet, was a Scotchman. 

6. The sheep of Saxony furnish valuable wool and mutton. 

7. The children ran races in Jefferson Park. 

8. Give a rogue an inch, and he will take an ell. 

9. A party of Danes made a settlement on the river. 

Note to the Teacher. — The sentences which make up the "Exer- 
cises " in the following lessons may be used for analysis or parsing. 

In analysis, let the pupil state all that he has learned about the 
construction of a sentence; and in parsing, all that he has learned 
about a word as a part of speech. 

XV. NOUNS, COMMON AND PROPER. 

When we speak of Abraham Lincoln., we refer to one of 
the presidents of the United States. When Ave speak of 
Chicago^ we refer to a city in Illinois, on Lake Michigan. 
When we speak of Bucephalus^ we refer to a celebrated, 
horse that belonged to Alexander the Great. 

Such names as Abraham Lincoln, Chicago, and Bucepha- 
lus, which belong only to particular persons or things, are 
called proper names, or proper nouns. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

When we use the name hoy^ we may refer to William, 
John, Peter, Morris, or any other boy. The word city may 
apply to Boston, New York, Chicago, St. Louis, or any 
one of the cities of the world. 

Such names as hoy and city are class names, and are 
called common nouns, because they are held in common by 
all of a kind. 

Notice that a name may consist of one, two, three, or 
even more Avords ; as, Washington^ Abraham Lincoln^ Wil- 
liam Cidlen Bryant^ Bridge of Sighs. 

Notice also that a proper noun, when written or printed, 
begins with a capital letter, while a common noun does 
not, unless it stands at the beginning of a sentence. 

The name of some particular person, place, or thing is called 
a proper noun. 

The name of a class of persons, places, or things is called a 
common noun. 

Exercise I. 

PROPER NOUNS, COMMON NOUNS, 

OR OR 

SPECIAL NAMES. CLASS NAMES. 

Ohio ^Danube., Ohi^Congo^Nile. river. 



Copy the groups of proper nouns below, and place at 
he right of each group the appropriate class name. 

1. New York, Philadelphia, San Francisco. 

2. Belle, Jennie, Clara, Mary. 

3. Jupiter, Earth, Mars, Venus. 

4. Ontario, Huron, Erie, Champlain. 

5. James, Henry, Thomas, Robert. 

6. Italy, China, Spain, Mexico. 

7. Europe, Africa, Asia, America. 

8. Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer. 



COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 29 

9. Sirius, Aldebaran, Arcturus, Vega. 

10. Longfellow, Bryant, Lowell, Whittier. 

IL Kennebec, Hudson, Thames, Niger. 

12. St. Peter's, St. Paul's, Notre Dame. 

13. The Renaissance, the Revolution, the Civil War. 

14. Middlesex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Essex. 

15. Esther, Catherine, Victoria, Dido. 

16. David, Solomon, Arthur, John. 

17. Massasoit, Philip, Tecumseh, Osceola. 

18. Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday. 

19. June, March, October, December. 

20. Bancroft, Prescott, Motley, Parkman. 

Exercise 2. 

CLASS NAMES, • SPECIAL NAMES, 

OR OR 

COMMON NOUNS. PROPER NOUNS. 

poem. Evangeline, Thanatopsis. 



Copy the common names below, and, at the right of 
each one, place appropriate proper names. 



boy 


sea 


statesman 


girl 


king 


general 


tune 


country 


president 


saint 


island 


teacher 


story 


warrior 


newspaper 



XVI. COLLECTIVE NOUNS. 

A plural noun, as already learned, is a name applied to 
more than one object ; as, hooks, knives, oxen, mice. 

But there are some nouns that are applied to groups of 
objects even when the names are in the singular number ; 
as, herd, army, school, flock. 

A herd is made up of a number of cattle ; an army, of a 
number of soldiers ; a school, of a number of pupils ; and 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

a floch^ of a number of birds or sheep. Each of these 
names has a plural, — herds^ armies^ schools^ flocks. You 
will notice, however, that these plurals are applied to a 
number of groups, not to a number of individuals. 

A name that in the singular number is applied to a 
collection of objects of the same kind, is called a collective 
noun. 

Nearly all collective nouns are common nouns ; but 
Congress, Parliament, etc., must be classed as proper nouns. 

Exercise I. 

army audience brace 

of soldiers of thinking men of partridges 



(a) Name, as above, the objects of which the following 
collections may be composed. 

bevy team covey fleet clump society 

club herd choir drove school regiment 

crew brood group suite family company 

gang class flock crowd couple committee 

(5) What word in the singular may be given to a col- 
lection of cows ? of geese ? of girls ? of pupils ? of bees ? 
of soldiers ? of Indians ? of ships ? of sailors on shipboard ? 
of people under one government? 

Exercise 2. 
Point out the nouns in the sentences below, tell to what 
class each belongs, and why it belongs to that class. 

1. In the evening, at the observatory, the whole class watched the 

eclipse. 

2. The family holds a reunion, every Christmas, at the town-hall. 

3. Mr. Stanley told us of his adventures with the wild tribes in Africa. 

4. The whole nation mourned for the dead president. 

5. Admiral Farragut commanded the fleet at JSTew Orleans. 



REVIEW EXERCISE. 31 



XVII. REVIEW EXERCISE. 

(a) Name all the nouns in the following extract, and 
classify them ; also point out one compellative. 

(5) What is the subject and predicate of the first 
proposition in the selection ; of the last proposition in the 
first stanza ; of the last proposition in the last stanza. 

Under a spreading chestnut tree 

The village smithy stands ; 
The smith, a mighty man is he, 

With large and sinewy hands ; 
And the muscles of his brawny arms 

Are strong as iron bands. 

His hair is crisp, and black, and long, 

His face is like the tan ; 
His brow is wet with honest sweat ; 

He earns whate'er he can, 
And looks the whole world in the face, 

For he owes not any man. 

Week in, week out, from morn till night. 

You can hear his bellows blow ; 
You can hear him swing his heavy sledge. 

With measured beat, and slow. 

Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, 

Onward through life he goes ; 
Each morning sees some task begin, 

Each evening sees its close ; 
Something attempted, something done. 

Has earned a night's repose. 

Thanks, thanks to thee, my worthy friend, 

For the lesson thou hast taught ! 
Thus at the flaming forge of life 

Our fortunes must be wrought. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 



XVIII. PRONOUNS. 

Exercise I. 
Rewrite the following sentences in such way as to avoid 
the repetition of the nouns. 

1. James enjoys James's position. 

2. The men have raised the men's rifles and are about to discharge 

the rifles. 

3. Yom- opinions are also my opinions. 

4. My preference was also his preference. 

5. Here is a gun ; the gun's aim is true. 

6. Messrs. Johnson and Co. are using Mr. Barton's horse, and Mr. 

Barton is using Messrs. Johnson and Co.'s. 

A Avord used instead of a noun is called a pronoun {pro-noun 
— for a noun). 

Exercise 2. 
They shook them from the trees. 
The hoys shook the nuts from the trees. 

In the first sentence, they and them are pronouns. Sub- 
stituting nouns in place of the pronouns, we have the 
second sentence. 

In place of the Italicized pronouns in the sentences 
below, use such names of persons or things as will express 
the probable meaning. 

1. She will not allow its dazzling light to enter hia sick-room. 

2. It struck the ship violently, and nearly swept them off the deck. 
8. They form the entire surface of the earth. 

4. It was keen and frosty as he drove them through the town. 

5. James went out to fly his kite. Its tail was soon caught in a tree. 

6. " My Lord has need of these flowerets gay," 

The Reaper said, and smiled ; 

" Dear tokens of the earth are they. 

Where He was once a child." 



ANTECEDENTS OF PRONOUNS. 33 



XIX. ANTECEDENTS OF PRONOUNS. 

The exercises in Lesson XVIII. show that pronouns are 
used frequently as a matter of convenience to enable us to 
avoid using long and awkward expressions. 

If we say, The trip to Alaska ivas thoroughly enjoyed^ 
hut it was attended with some danger^ the word it enables 
us to express the thought just as clearly as though the 
words the trip to Alaska were repeated. 

The word, or group of words, for which a pronoun stands, 
is called its antecedent. 

England expects every man to do his duty. 
To meet the teacher was then a dread ; now it is a pleasure. 
" ' Tis never too late to mend " is an old adage., hut it may 
mislead. 

In the first sentence, the noun man is the antecedent 
of the pronoun his; in the second, the group of words 
to meet the teacher., is the antecedent of it ; in the third, the 
pronoun it refers to the adage, 'Tis never too late to mend. 

Pronouns frequentl}^ have no antecedents expressed. 

Exercise. 

(a) Point out the antecedents of the Italicized pro- 
nouns in the extract below, and name the pronouns whose 
antecedents are not expressed* 

(5) Point out the nouns, and tell whether they are 
common, proper, or collective, and why. 

Burned Marniioii's swarthy cheek like fire, 
And shook Ms very frame for ire, 

And — " This to me ! " he said, 
"An 'twere not for thy hoary beard, 
Such hand as Marniion's had not spared 

To cleave the Douglas' head ! 

MET. ENG. GRAM. — 3 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

And first / tell thee, haughty peer, 
He who does England's message here, 
Although the meanest in her state. 
May well, proud Angus, be thj mate ; 
And, Douglas, more / tell thee here. 

Even in thy pitch of pride. 
Here in thy hold, tJiy vassals near, — 
Nay, never look upon your lord, 
And lay your hands upon your sword, — 

/ tell thee, thou'vt defied ! " 



XX. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
Exercise. 

(a) In the following sentences, point out the pronouns 
and tell what nouns might be used in place of them. 

(5) Which of the pronouns refer to but one person 
or thing ? Which to more than one ? 

(c) Which refer to a person who is speaking ? Which to 
a person spoken to ? Which to a person or thing spoken of ? 

L I am the boy. 9. Thou art the man. 

2. This is my book. 10. Thy sins are forgiven. 

3. This book is mine. 11. Thine eye is evil. 

4. He gave the book to me. 12. You are seven years old. 

5. We will go together. 13. Is this coat yours ? 

6. Our books are new. 14. He is often late. 

7. Is this paper ours? 15. His slate was given to him. 

8. The boy gave the paper to us. 16. She always does her best. 

Nouns and pronouns that denote but one person or thing 
are in the singular number ; as, man, woman, he, she. Those 
that denote more than one person or thing are in the plu- 
ral number; as, men, women, they, them. 

Nouns and pronouns that denote the speaker are said to 
be in the first person ; as, I, my, me. Those that denote 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 35 

the person spoken to are in the second person; as, thou^ ihy^ 
you^ yours. Those that denote the person or thing spoken 
of are in the third person ; as, Ae, she^ they^ them. 

Pronouns that show by their forms (spelling) whether 
they are in the first, the second, or the third person are 
called personal pronouns. For example, I is always in 
the first person, you in the second, and he in the third; 
hence i, you^ and he are personal pronouns. 

List of Personal Pronouns (for Reference). 

singular. . plural. 

The speaker, 1 

First Person. J ^' "^^^ """^' '^^' ^^' °^^'' ^^^^' ^^• 

The person spoken to, | ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^j^.^^^^ ^^^^^ 

Second Person. J 
The person or thing 1 he, his, hiin. 

spoken of, \ she, her, hers. they, their, theirs, them. 

Third Person. I it, its. 



XXL PERSONAL PRONOUNS {continued). 

Exercise. 

Point out the personal pronouns and their antecedents 
in the following sentences. 

L James and his bride became the talk of the village, and Jane 

often saw them from her window. 
2. The lad had taken off his scarf and thrust it into his pocket, lest 

the rain should take the color out of it. 
.']. There was no surprising Hendry unless he was in the mood for it, 

and his coolness was one of Jess's grievances. 

4. Jamie inquired for his mother in a tone that was meant to deceive 

me into thinking he did not care how she was. 

5. Hendry was never tired of gloating over Jess's cleverness so long as 

she was not present. He was always athirst for fresh proofs of it. 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

6. Jess read " The Heart of Midlothian," and she and I had a discus- 

sion about it. Our village once had an author of its own. 

7. When a mob punishes a guilty man, it is itself guilty of a greater 

crime than the criminal who suffers at its hands. 

8. The Ancient Mariner is picked up by the hermit and his compan- 

ions ; and, as soon as they step on shore, he cries to the hermit, 
" Shrive me, shrive me, holy man," and then he tells the story 
of his cruelty to the bird, and the terrible punishment he has 
undergone on that account. 

9. Swiftly, swiftly, flew the ship. 

Yet she sailed softly too : 
Sweetly, sweetly, blew the breeze, — 
On me alone it blew. 



XXH. COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

The syllable self (plural selves) is added to many of 
the personal pronouns, thus forming what are called 
compound personal pronouns ; as, myself themselves. 

(1) Select from the list of personal pronouns on page 35, 
such as will take the syllable self., and write the compound 
personal pronouns. 

(2) Select from the same list such pronouns as will 
take the syllable selves., and write the compound personal 
pronouns. 

These pronouns have two uses : — 

(1) They are sometimes used merely for emphasis. 

Examples : I did it myself. We saw the Queen herself. 

(2) Sometimes they are used in the predicate of the 
sentence as a repetition of the subject, or, as is often said, 
in a reflexive sense. 

Examples: She hurt herself. The witness perjured himself. 

(3) A simple pronoun is sometimes used reflexively. 
Example : I laid me down and slept. 



COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 37 

Exercise. 

(a) In the following sentences, point out each personal 
pronoun, tell why it is a personal pronoun, and name its 
antecedent if it has one. 

(b) Point out the compound personal pronouns. Which 
are used for emphasis, and which in a reflexive sense ? 

1. It is written, " My house is a house of prayer ; but ye have made it 

a den of thieves." 

2. I myself sometimes despise myself. 

3. Why don't you speak for yourself, John ? 

4. In silence the crowd awaited the will of the soldiers. 

Then uprose their commander, and spoke from the steps of the 

altar. 
Holding aloft in his hands, with its seals, the royal commission. 
"You are convened this day," he said, "V>y his Majesty's orders. 
Clement and kind has he been, but how you have answered his 

kindness. 
Let your own hearts reply ! To my natural make and my temper, 
Painful the task is I do, which to you I know must be grievous. 
Yet must I bow and obey, and deliver the will of our monarch ; 
Namely, that all your lands and dwellings and cattle of all kinds 
Forfeited be to the crown ; and that you yourselves from this 

province 
Be transported to other lands." 

5. From the neighboring school 
Come the boys. 

With more than their wonted noise 

And commotion ; 

And down the wet streets 

Sail their mimic lEleets, 

Till the treacherous pool 

Ingulfs them in its whirling 

And turbulent ocean. 

6. Ah ! sure, within man and without, 
Could his dark wisdom find it out. 
There must be answer to his doubt. 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

XXIII. ADJECTIVES. 

Compare the following sentences. 

The ehn threw its shadow over the stream. 

The graceful elm threw its shadow over the stream. 

You see that the word graceful adds an idea not ex- 
pressed in the first sentence. What is that idea ? 

"Words used to point out more fully, or to describe, the ob- 
jects designated by nouns and pronouns are called adjectives. 

Sometimes such words express a quality of the object 
named ; as, the graceful elm. Sometimes they indicate 
the number of objects ; as, a feiv men., six eggs. Again, 
they may give an idea of the place of an object ; as, 
yonder hills., these flowers. 

An adjective is said to qualify, modify, or limit a 
noun (or pronoun) when it points out more definitely, or 
describes, the object which the noun names. 

Exercise. 

These two generous farmers have a miserly neighbor. 

In this sentence, these points out the farmers as near ; 
two shows their number; generous indicates their charac- 
ter ; miserly denotes the character of the neighbor. 



Tell for what the Italicized words in the sentences below^ 
are used. 

1. A smooth, green lawn pleases the eye. 

2. Isaac caught a large black bass. 

3. The mate's long yarns amused the youthful voyagers. 

4. The three young robins have just learned to fly. 

5. Many children suffer from lack of nutritious food. 

6. Four powerful Norman horses were attached to the dray. 

7. The bald-headed eagle is a rapacious bird. 



ADJECTIVES. 39 

8. A true lover of Nature studies her changing hues and forms. 

9. Some early fruits are costly. 

10. Reading makes a full man ; writing, an exact man. 

11. The generous beat of that ardent heart, now so quiet^ is yet felt by 

a grateful nmltitude. 

12. A sincere love sought to pay him its grateful tribute. 

13. Many softly whispered their praises of the great and good 

minister. 

14. It was love that made the last dark days of life all open and 

bright to him. 
1.5. Along the streets of old Bennington are neat cottages and stately 
mansions, with a creditable array of churches and schools. 

16. The cheery light of a new era shone in his face. 

17. He was swept on by an unspent ardor that made an easy and 

deliberate conversation quite impossible. 



XXIV. ADJECTIVES {continued). 

Exercise I. 

Copy the following incomplete sentences, and fill each 
blank with a word that shall point out or describe the 
object (or objects) named by the noun that follows. 

1. A knife is usually held in the hand. 

2. All watch-dogs are prized. 

3. robins are fed by the mother-birds. 

4. manners are offensive. 

5. A road is the shortest. 

6. A answer turneth away wrath. 

7. harvests delight the farmer. 

8. clouds look threatening. 

9. An eclipse of the sun allows only a bright ring to be seen. 

10. trees grow from acorns. 

11. boys will usually be shunned. 

12. A very horse usually brings a price. 

13. A son maketh a glad father. 

14. soldiers do not run away. 

15. The workman will receive only wages. 



40 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 



Mother has bought a 



Exercise 2. 

fine 

beautiful 
costly 
rich 

soft 



carpet. 



Copy the sentences below and try to find five suitable 
adjectives for each blank. 

1. Napoleon was a general. 

2. Chicago has had a growth. 

3. Edgar's manners are . 

4. The Pilgrim fathers were men. 

5. The Sahara is a region. 

6. Helen's father gave her a watch. 

XXV. ADJECTIVES {continued). 
Exercise I. 

f soufid^ hollow; large, small; thrifty., decayiyig ; 

lyoung., old; straight., crooked; prolific, barren. 



In like manner, copy the following nouns, and after each 
write three or more pairs of adjectives denoting opposite 
qualities which may belong to the object. 



book 


sky 


horse 


letter 


service 


road 


farm 


water 


voyage 


foliage 


room 


moon 


dinner 


carpet 


countenance 



Exercise 2. 
Write, as in Exercise 1, pairs of adjectives denoting 
opposite qualities belonging to the following. 

song cloud novel sunset history 

gait site garden journey senator 

mine ruin manner morning accident 



GENERAL REVIEW. 



41 



XXVI. ADJECTIVES (continued). 
Exercise. 

A feiv rough men destroyed those works of art. 

In this sentence, few denotes number; rough denotes 
quality ; those implies remoteness in place or time. 



Connect each of the following words, as an adjective, 
with two or more suitable nouns, and tell of each adjective 
whether it denotes quality, number, or place. 



rough 


giant 


these 


yonder 


sound 


low 


common 


aged 


shattered 


full-grown 


thickset 


towering 


shaggy 


showy- 


few 


two 


enormous 


countless 


handsome 


kingly 


near 


opposite 


lifeless 


hollow 


distant 


upright 


tall 


crabbed 


grand 


those 


small 


vigorous 



How do such words as this^ thaf^ these, and those^ indicate 
place ? 

XXVIL GENERAL REVIEW. 

(1) What is a sentence ? Make or select a declarative, 
an interrogative, an imperative, and an exclamatory sen- 
tence. 

(2) Define and illustrate the following terms : subject ; 
predicate ; compellative ; noun, proper noun, common 
noun ; pronoun, personal pronoun, compound personal 
pronoun ; and adjective. 

(3) In the following sentence, (1) point out the subject 
and the predicate, and (2) give the part of speech of each 
word in Italics. 

The honest farmer, strong in his integrity, spurned the offer. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 



XXVIII. ARTICLES. 

The words, a, aw, and the^ when used before nouns to 
limit their meaning, are sometimes called articles. 

These words are usually classed as adjectives, because, 
like adjectives, they are used as modifiers of nouns. 

A and an^ two forms of the same word, are called the 
indefinite article. They point out, indefinitely, the object 
named by a noun. 

The is called the definite article because it points out an 
object somewhat definitely. It may be used before either 
a singular or a plural noun, and often differs but little 
from the word that. 

Examples: The man built a house. That man built a house. 

When several objects are named, and each is referred to 
separately, the indefinite article must be repeated before 
each noun ; but if two or more nouns refer to one object, 
the indefinite article is commonly used before the first 
only. 

Examples : A house and a barn were burned. 

The plan has been approved by Professor Boise, a gen- 
tleman and scholar. 

In cases like the latter, however, the repetition of the 
article is sometimes used to give emphasis. 

Exercise. 

Use the article a or an, in sentences, before the follow- 
ing nouns, and give the first sound in the noun. Tell 
whether the sound is that of a vowel or of a consonant. 

angel 
union 
quince 



arm 


urn 


hoop 


hall 


olive 


easel 


one 


hour 


herb 


heir 


uncle 


chair 


owl 


city 


desk 


whoop 


youth 


yacht 



APPOSITIVES. 43 

In the last exercise, you have found that a may properly 
be used before a word beginning with a consonant sound, 
and an^ before a word beginning with a vowel sound. 

You will also notice that the sound of the n in the 
article an separates the sound of the vowel a which pre- 
cedes the w, from the vowel sound which introduces the 
following word. This renders the words more easily 
spoken.^ 

Errors to be avoided in the Use of Articles. 

1. He came to the conclusion that no human being was competent 
to instruct him in divine things ; not, He came to a conclusion, etc. 

2. He was a strange kind of man ; not, He was a strange kind of a 
man. 

3. Napoleon now assumed the title of emperor ; not, Napoleon now 
assumed the title of an emperor. 

4. Ohio is an Indian name ; not, The Ohio is an Indian name. 

5. A Harvard and an Amherst man came home together ; not, A 
Harvard and Amherst man came home together. 



XXIX. APPOSITIVES. 

The meaning or reference of a noun or pronoun is some- 
times made clear or emphatic by means of another noun 
or pronoun denoting the same person or thing. 

Example: Eliot, the apostle to the Indians, was a noble man. 

A noun used to explain, identify, or emphasize another 
noun or pronoun, is called an appositive. 

The noun or pronoun whose meaning is thus made 
clearer is said to be modified by the appositive. In its use, 

1 There may seem to be an exception in the case of such words as union, 
one, etc. ; but the former of these words begins with the sound of consonant 
y, and the latter with that of consonant w. (See page 9, notes 2 and 4.) Good 
use sanctions a union, such a one, etc. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART 1. 

therefore, the appositive resembles the adjective, and may 
properly be called an adjective modifier. 

The appositive, especially if consisting of more than 
one word, is usually set off by commas. 

Exercise i. 

Point out the appositive in each sentence below; also 
the subject and predicate. 

1. I myself witnessed the inauguration. 

2. My son Max is of age ; his brother John is sixteen. 

3. The disciples stood on the bank of the river Jordan. 

4. Napoleon III., Emperor of France, was defeated at Sedan. 

5. " Evangeline," a tale of Acadia, was written by Longfellow. 

6. What do you know of Homer, the blind poet ? 

7. Washington, our national capital, is on the Potomac. 

8. We shall be joined by Nelson, Mr. Gray's eldest son. 

9. "In His Name," a story by Rev. E. E. Hale, is very popular. 
10. John Adams, the second president, lived in Quincy, Mass. 

Exercise 2. 

(<%) Name the appositives in the following sentences, and 

tell which of them should be set off by commas, and why. 

(6) Name the subject and the predicate in each sentence. 

1. Milton the blind poet is ranked below the poet Homer. 

2. 'Tis chanticleer the shepherd's clock announcing day. 

3. How grandly earnest was Paul the apostle to the Gentiles ! 

4. You yourself have sometimes excused her anger. 

5. Now Philomel sweet songstress charmed the night. 

6. The Bible makes frequent use of the number seven. 

7. Webster the orator and statesman was born in New Hampshire. 

8. We the people of the United States in order to form, etc. 

9. What do you know of William the Conqueror ? 

10. Cadet Prince has returned to West Point. 

11. The crown was offered to Richard the king's brother. 



VERBS. 45 

XXX. VERBS. 

Exercise I. 

(a) In each of the following sentences, point out the 
subject arid the predicate. 

1. Fishes swim. 5. The young man fell. 

2. Birds fly. 6. These pupils learn rapidly. 

3. Indians live in wigwams. 7. A tree stood near the house. 

4. The old horse died. 8. Jane wrote a good letter. 

(5) What word in each of the foregoing sentences tells 
something, or makes an assertion? 

((?) What word in each sentence names the thing of 
which the assertion is made ? 

The word used in a sentence to make an assertion is called 
a verb. 

The verb and the words used with it to make a complete 
assertion are together called the entire predicate. 

The word in a sentence which names the thing of which 
an assertion is made, is called the simple (unmodified) sub- 
ject. (The unmodified subject may be either a noun or a 
pronoun.) 

The simple subject and its modifiers taken together are 
called the entire subject. 

The entire subject and the entire predicate taken to- 
gether make a complete sentence. 

Exercise 2. 
In the following sentences, point out the simple subject, 
the verb, and the entire predicate. 

1. A single hay-cart creaks slowly down the dusty road. 

2. The thirsty cattle drank eagerly of the pure water. 

3. Did you hear the moaning of the wind? 

4. The live thunder leaps from peak to peak. 

5. An investment in knowledge pays the best interest. 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

XXXI. VERBS (continued). 

Some verbs assert action ; some assert existence ; and 
some assert state, or condition. 

Examples: Canaries sing. (Action.) 

God is. (Being, or existence.) 
Mother rests. (State, or condition.) 

Exercise. 
In each of the following sentences, separate the subject 
from the predicate, point out the verb, and tell whether 
it asserts action, being, or state. 

1. He sleeps well. 11. Our country stretches from 

2. Point toward the north. sea to sea. 

3. The house stands on the hill. 12. A cloud hung over his pros- 

4. The river rose rapidly. pects. 

5. We removed his doubts. 13. Thy people became my peo- 

6. The snow melts rapidly. pie. 

7. The teacher enrolled fifty 14. I learned the amount of his 

pupils. loss. 

8. Fifty workmen were in the 15. He examined the records. 

mill. 16. You heard the news. 

9. The shawls lie on the shelf. 17. My friend remains in Paris. 
10. Lay the shawls on the coun- 18. The orator held the audience 

ter. spellbound. 

19. This steamer plies between Boston and Portland. 

20. That was the dream of my boyhood. 

21. On the hillside hung a ray of sunset. 

22. Can man's endeavor chain the winged day? 

23. The moon snatches her pale fire from the sun. 

24. Tradition sheds a charm on the remote past. 

25. At sunrise we struck our tents. 

26. The time seemed ripe for action. 

27. The light widens into perfect day. 

28. Gladly the martyr laid down his life. 

29. Now approached the long-expected herald. 

30. The trees bowled down their summits of green. 



VERB-PHRASES. 47 

XXXIL VERB-PHRASES. 

(1) Change the foUowmg sentences from the declarative 
to the interrogative form. 

Canaries sing. Grod exists. Mother rested. 

(2) Have you used more or fewer words in each inter- 
rogative sentence than are given in the declarative ? 

(3) Without omitting any of the words, change into 
declarative sentences the three interrogative sentences 
just formed. 

Of how many words does each predicate consist now, 
and what are they ? 

Two or more words used together in a sentence to make 
an assertion are called a verb-phrase. 

The predicates, do sing., does exists and did rest, in the 
sentences you have formed, are verb-phrases. 

In the sentences, The canary has been singing and The 
canary may have been singing., " has been singing " and 
" may have been singing " are verb-phrases, one consisting 
of three words, and the other of four. 

The words forming a verb-phrase are not always used 
in immediate succession, as you have already seen in the 
interrogative sentences. So also in the sentence. He may 
not have really disobeyed me, ''''may have disobeyed^'' is the 
verb-phrase although interrupted by the words not and 
really. 

It frequently happens that the parts of a verb-phrase 
are widely separated. 

Examples : 

He might in one sense have been a judge of poetry. 

An Oxford degree may, at its best, represent the noblest scholarship. 

Never before had our people been so united. 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

Exercise. 
Point out the verb-phrases in the following sentences. 

1. We should have listened to him at first. 

2. That voice can faintly reach us. 

3. I can hardly see its outline. 

4. You may be amazed at this. 

5. He has not retired from the seat of action. 

6. Thus may we surely hear the footsteps of the Maker. 

7. Can a spider weave such a beautiful web ? 

8. His course has always been marked by prudence. 

9. What do these words really prove ? 

10. Never hath man seen the form of God. 

11. Not a word of explanation could the messenger give. 

XXXni. TRANSITIVE VERBS AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

In the sentence, The dog fi^ightened the hird^ the noun 

bird is called the object of the verb, because it is the name 

of the object receiving the action which the verb expresses. 

A verb that expresses an action which takes effect upon 

some object is called a transitive verb. 

It is usual to speak of the subject as acting, and of the 
object as receiving the action. The subject and object are 
only names of the real persons or things that act or receive 
the action. 

In the sentence. The man walks rapidly^ the verb walks 
expresses an action that does not take effect upon any 
object. The verb, therefore, is not transitive. 

A verb that expresses being or state, or an action which 
does not take effect upon any object, is called an intransi- 
tive verb. 

Transitive. Intransitive. 

Examples : The cat catches mice. The cat squalls. 

A man heard a noise. A man rode by. 

Some earn money. Henry went liome. 



TRANSITIVE VERBS AND INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 49 

Exercise. 

(«) In the sentences below, separate each subject from 
its predicate. 

(5) Point out the verbs and verb-phrases, and tell 
whether each is transitive or intransitive, and why. 

1. The farmer plows his field. 6. The storm grows furious. 

2. The train moves rapidly. 7. The Athenians felt the shock. 

3. Have you heard the news? 8. The wind has torn the flag. 

4. He had done his task well. 9. The eagle flies very high. 

5. The baby sleeps quietly. 10. A girl took the honors. 

11. I had just taken your letter from the office. 

12. Sweet lullabies the mother was singing to her babe. 

13. The fishermen will spread their nets in the sun. 



XXXIV. TRANSITIVE VERBS AND INTRANSITIVE 
VERBS (continued). 

Certain verbs may at one time be used transitively, at 
another intransitively. For example, we may say. The 
wind blew furiously. In this sentence, the verb blew is 
intransitive, because it has no object. But in the sen- 
tence. The wind hletv the snotv into our faees^ the verb 
hle^v is transitive, because followed by the object snow. 

An intransitive verb is often followed by a noun similar 
in meaning to the verb ; as,. He ran a race. Such a noun 
is regarded as the object of the verb. 

Exercise I. 

(a) Make five sentences, each containing one of the fol- 
lowing verbs used first transitively, and then intransitively. 

Run, fly, draw, speak, wave. 

(5) Name the five objects of the transitive verbs, and 
tell why they are called objects. 

MET. ENG. GRAM. 4 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

Exercise 2. 

Of each of the following verbs, state whether it is transi- 
tive or intransitive ; also name the object of each transitive 
verb. 

1. The bank may break, the factory burn. 

2. We will gather these fallen twigs and burn them. 

3. It [mercy] becomes the throned monarch better than his crown. 

4. The child becomes a man . 

5. When I wake I am still with thee. 

6. Night wanes, the vapors disappear, and light awakes the world. 

7. Watch thou, and wake when others sleep. 

8. I watched the early glories of her eyes 

As men for daybreak watch the eastern skies. 

9. The silent hours steal on, 

And flaky darkness breaks within the east. 

10. The bottles break, and the wine is spilled. 

11. A bruised reed will he not break. 



XXXV. COMPLETE VERBS AND INCOMPLETE VERBS. 

Some verbs form a complete predicate, while others do 
not. In the sentence. The wind hlows^ the verb blows 
forms the entire predicate, and the sense is complete. But 
in the groups of words, The roads are^ Josephine hecame^ 
something is needed in each case to express the complete 
thought. If we say. The roads are dusty^ Josephine became 
queen^ the adjective dusty and the noun queen make the 
sense complete. 

Verbs, therefore, may again be divided into two classes ; 
viz. complete verbs and incomplete verbs. 

A complete verb is one that, without help, will form a 
complete predicate. 

An incomplete verb is one that requires the addition of 
one or more words to complete the predicate. 



COMPLETE VERBS AND INCOMPLETE VERBS. 51 

Whatever must be added to a verb to complete the 
predicate is called the complement. Therefore, in deciding 
whether a verb is complete or incomplete, the question is 
not, what may be added to make the meaning fuller, but 
whether something must be added to make the sense com- 
plete. 

Thus, to the sentence, Trees grow^ the word rapidly 
(tall^ yonder^ etc.) may be added to make the meaning 
fuller ; but the sense is complete without the addition of 
any other word. The verb grow is therefore complete. 

But the expressions, James lifted^ Nelson became^ Wash- 
ington crossed^ are evidently unfinished, and some word or 
words must be added. These verbs, therefore, are incom- 
plete. 

Exercise. 

(a) Tell which of the following groups of words are 
sentences, and why. 

(J) Tell which verbs are complete and which incom- 
plete. 

(t?) Add suitable complements wherever they are needed. 



1. 


The trees grow. 


15. 


This firm may raise. 


2. 


The lady expects. 


16. 


They thirst. 


3. 


The farmer plows. 


17. 


Why will they prolong ? 


4. 


The baby sleeps. 


18. 


The house fell. 


5. 


The young man was. 


19. 


The woodman felled. 


6. 


Ten boys are. 


20. 


The blacksmith uses. 


7. 


The weather seems. 


21. 


This color becomes. 


8. 


I will arise. 


22. 


Prices advanced. 


9. 


The ship may float. 


23. 


Night retires. 


10. 


Winter approaches. 


24. 


Riches increase. 


11. 


Washington crossed. 


25. 


Murmurs arose. 


12. 


Aristides was called. 


26. 


The prince will bestow. 


13. 


The baker kneaded. 


27. 


A dozen men were. 


14. 


Time flies. 


28. 


The governor withheld. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

XXXVI. COMPLETE VERBS AND INCOMPLETE 
VERBS (continued). 

Transitive Verbs. 

A transitive verb does not make a complete predicate, 
because it must be followed by a complement to name the 
person or thing that receives the action. The comple- 
ment of a transitive verb is called the object complement, 
or more commonly, the object. 

^ The woman spins the yarn. 

In this sentence, the verb spins predicates (asserts) 
spinning of the woman, and the object yarn tells what she 
spins. 

When one term changes or adds to the meaning of 
another, the former is said to modify the latter. 

It should be noticed that the object yarn neither 
describes nor identifies the subject. We say it modifies 
the verb because it more fully explains its meaning. 

The hoy found a squirreVs nest. 

In this sentence the verb found is transitive because it 
is followed by an object. iVes^ is the object because it tells 
what the boy found. 

The object complement of a transitive verb is some- 
times a noun or pronoun denoting the same person or 
thing as the subject. 

He hurt himself. They hid themselves in the forest. 

The object himself denotes the same person as the 
subject he ; and themselves has the same meaning as they. 



COMPLETE VERBS AND INCOMPLETE VERBS. 53 

Exercise. 

(a) Tell whether the verb in each of the following sen- 
tences is transitive or intransitive, and why. 

(5) Name the object of each transitive verb, and tell 
why it is the object. 

1. The wind sweeps the blossoms from the apple trees. 

2. The mason built the blacksmith's forge. 

3. The sun rose upon a race of slaves, 

4. The blacksmith shoes the mason's horse. 

5. Anthracite coal burns very slowly. 

6. Vast herds of buffaloes once grazed on the plains. 

7. Dickens wrote *' Dombey and Son." 

8. Rome bound with oak her patriots' brows. 

9. The ocean eagle soared from his nest. 

10. The spires of the city swam in the blue morning vapors. 

XXXVIL COMPLETE VERBS AND INCOMPLETE 
VERBS {continued). 

Intransitive Verbs. 

Some intransitive verbs are complete and others are 
incomplete. 

The wind blows. 

In this sentence, the intransitive verb blows forms a 
complete predicate, because no modifying word is needed 
to complete the sense. 

The pupils are restless. 

In this sentence, the verb are is incomplete, because 
some word is needed to complete the sense. 

Beethoven was a musician. 

Here the verb was is incomplete, and the noun comple- 
ment musician is used to complete the sense. 



54 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

The most common incomplete intransitive verbs are the 
following : — 

Be (is, am, are, was, were), seem, become, look, sound, appear, feel, 
taste, smell, continue, remain. 

These verbs are usually called copulative verbs, because 
they connect the complement with the subject. 

Examples: The teacher is kind. The pupils are boys. The owl 
looks wise. Sugar tastes sweet. The lieutenant became captain. 

Noun complements of intransitive verbs are called predi-' 
cate nouns. 

Adjective complements of intransitive verbs are called 
predicate adjectives. 

A complement, whether noun or adjective, combined 
with a copulative verb, forms the simple predicate. 

Such noun complements and adjective complements are 
called attributes of the subject, because they denote certain 
properties or characteristics attributed, or ascribed, to the 
subject, and thus modify or explain its meaning. 

Exercise. 

(a) Point out the complements in the sentences below, 
and tell which are noun attributes and which are adjective 
attributes. 

(V) Point out the simple predicates. 

1. The calling of the locomotive engineer is hazardous. 

2. Alexander Hamilton was a statesman. 

3. Each house shall be the judge of the elections of its own members. 

4. This author's knowledge of his theme is extensive. 

5. The clouds look threatening. 

6. The Mile-End road is a magnificent thoroughfare. 

7. Locomotive engineers are a picked body of men. 



BE AS A COMPLETE VERB. 55 

8. The death of the beautiful flowers always seems sad. 

9. Comment is unnecessary. 

10. Of his ability, all his friends appear confident. 

11. The nightingale is sovereign of song. 

Notice that the noun complement designates the same 
person or thing as the subject, and that the adjective 
complement describes the subject. 

Notice also that the noun complement may represent 
many qualities of the subject, and that the adjective com- 
plement represents only one. 



XXXVIII. BE AS A COMPLETE VERB. 

While the verb he does not usually form a complete 
predicate, there are numerous instances in which this verb 
asserts mere existence, and is as complete as any other. 

Examples : The grass of the field which to-day is (exists) . 
He that cometh to God must believe that He is. 

The word there often introduces a sentence in which the 
verb he is used as a complete predicate. In such cases 
the real subject follows the verb, and the word there is 
used merely to introduce the sentence. This usually 
permits a stronger and more agreeable arrangement of 
the sentence. 

Examples : There is no occasion for anxiety. 

There are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio, 
Than are dreamt of in your philosophy. 
There is a reaper whose name is Death. 

Rewrite the last three examples, omitting in each case 
the word there. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

Exercise. 

Point out the entire subject and the entire predicate in 
each sentence below, and tell which predicate verbs are 
complete, and which incomplete. 

1. The entire structure will be fireproof. 

2. Time was when these plains were a desert. 

3. The Hudson is a beautiful river. 

4. There is a land of pure delight. 

5. The parlors of the Profile House will be spacious and elegant. 

6. There were giants in those days. 

7. Lake Champlain has long been the angler's paradise. 

8. Into the valley of Death rode the six hundred. 

9. The society of Cape May seems refined and hospitable. 
10. All things that are, shall decay. 



XXXIX. REVIEW EXERCISE. 

The muffled drum's sad roll has beat 

The soldier's last tattoo ; 
No more on life's parade shall meet 

That brave and fallen few. 
On fame's eternal camping-ground 

Their silent tents are spread, 
And glory guards, with solemn round, 

The bivouac of the dead. 

(a) Write the first proposition in the foregoing stanza. 
What is the subject ? What is the predicate ? 

(5) What is the second proposition in the stanza ? 
Point out its subject and predicate. 

(c) Point out the adjectives in the stanza, and the 
nouns which they modify. Are they common or proper 
nouns, and why ? 

(t?) Point out the verbs and the verb-phrases in the 
stanza, and name the simple subject of each. 



ADVERBS. 57 

XL. ADVERBS. 

There the young artist received instruction^ and afterwards 
his paintings were fiyiished more satisfactorily. 

In this sentence, there tells the place in which instruc- 
tion was received ; afterwards tells the time when the 
paintings were finished ; satisfactorily tells the manner in 
which they were finished ; and more tells the degree of 
satisfaction. 

Or, there answers the question, W^here did he receive 
instruction ? — afterguards answers the question. When 
were the paintings finished ? — satisfactorily answers the 
question, How were the paintings finished? — and more 
answers the question, How satisfactorily? 

Exercise. 

Tell what the Italicized words in the following sentences 
are used for, or tell what questions they will answer. 

1. Horses now travel faster i\i.2in formerly. 

2. The pupils study faithfully, and recite their lessons well. 

3. Our work moves smoothly, and we shall soon finish it. 

4. The polls were opened early, and the votes were deposited rapidly. 

5. Hei^e and there could be heard the sharp crack of the rifle, as the 

scouts came unexpectedly upon the foe. 

Such words as we have been considering in this lesson 
are called adverbs, because they are usually added to verbs 
to explain, or in some way to modify, their meaning. 

Adverbs that answer the question ivhen are called ad- 
verbs of time. Those that ansAver the question how are 
adverbs of manner. Those that answer the question where 
are adverbs of place. Those that answer the question how 
much, how little, or to what extent, are adverbs of degree. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

XLL ADA^ERBS MODIFYING VERBS. 

Exercise. 

/ meet my friend daily in the city. 

In the sentence above, daily is an adverb, because it 
modifies the verb meet. It is an adverb of time, because 
it tells when I meet my friend. 



(a) Select the adverbs in the following sentences, tell 
why they are adverbs, and name the verbs modified. 

(5) Tell what kind of adverbs they are and give the 
reason. 

When in doubt as to the use of a modifying word, omit 
it and note the change in the meaning of the sentence. 

1. Now comes the sport. 

2. The pupil reaches school early. 

3. This boy is doing well, but that one badly. 

4. The children ran about gleefully. 

5. The clock that stands there has never run regularly. 

6. Herein lies the difficulty, 

7. An ox team always moves slowly. 

8. Benevolent men usually give liberally. 

9. Hither comes the little child whose heart is light and gay. 

10. Evil doers are generally punished. 

11. He has recently grown deaf, and will soon resign his office. 

12. Promptly but sadly the messenger started thither. 

13. He often speaks thus ; his sister seldom. 

14. Yonder the flag once waved triumphantly. 

15. The historian shows clearly that the councilors were unwise. 

16. Here they eagerly sought for gold. 

17. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

18. The fairest flowers soon wither. 

19. His eloquent words were indelibly fixed in my mind. 

20. Does the prisoner still expect pardon ? 

21. Speak gently to the erring. 



ADVERBS MODIFYING ADJECTIVES. 59 



XLII. ADVERBS MODIFYING ADJECTIVES. 

Adverbs may be used in sentences to show a great 
degree of the quality expressed by adjectives ; or that the 
quality is sufficient, or slight, or not really present. 

How white with snow are the distant hills ! 

In this sentence, the word how is used to imply that the 
hills are very white ; that is, how^ thus used, shows a great 
degree of whiteness^ the quality expressed by the adjective 
white. 

Exercise. 

(a) Read the sentences, omitting the adverbs. 

(5) What word in each sentence seems to be modified 
(strengthened or weakened) by the adverb? 

(c) To what part of speech does the modified word 
belong ? 

1. All exercises should be written with very great care. 

2. The winter has been extremely cold. 

3. You were somewhat late this morning. 

4. The weather has been rather disagreeable all the week. 

5. The sky is nearly black with thick, angry clouds. 

6. The old oak is scarcely alive. 

7. The pioneer's struggles were wholly vain. 

8. How dear to my heart are the scenes of my childhood ! 

9. She is an uncommonly good scholar. 

10. The car was hardly fit for service. 

11. The less forward youth may become the more intelligent man. 

12. The elder son shows a still livelier wit. 

13. The most popular plants are the best. 

14. I care not how fickle others have been found. 

15. Chatham's public life was nobly consistent. 

16. Far nobler fields of triumph were his. 

17. Peaches so large and luscious are somewhat rare. 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

XLIII. ADVERBS MODIFYING ADVERBS. 

An adverb may be used in a sentence to increase or to 
diminish the force of another adverb. 

Example : WiUiam writes more rapidly but less neatly than his sister. 

Exercise. 

(a) Read the sentences below, omitting the words in 
Italics. 

(5) What word in each sentence seems to be modified 
(strengthened or weakened) by the Italicized word ? 

(c) To what part of speech does the modified word 
belong ? 

1. The brakeman was very severely injured. 

2. The man cut his finger quite off. 

3. His pulse was beating rather feebly. 

4. Most children eat too rapidly. 

5. Whose performance was most highly commended ? 

6. How dearly that child loves his mother ! 

7. The wind has been blowing somewhat fiercely. 

8. Let thine eyes look right forward. 

9. He is nearly always discouraged. 
10. The train is almost never on time. 

Adverbs are •words used to modify the meaning of verbs, 
adjectives, and other adverbs. 

XLIV. CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 

Exercise I. 

Fill each blank below with an adverb of time. Choose 
with care, and, if possible, avoid repetition. 

1 . We shall see who are ready. 

2. there went up a mighty shout. 

3. The patient will improve . 

4. We should tell the truth. 



CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS. 61 

5. I will take your place . 

6. The fields will be plowed. 

7. Your letters should be mailed . 

8. That thing should happen. 

9. the storm had burst. 

10. he wrote often ; now I hear from him. 

11. no European had seen this land. 

12. shall we three meet again ? 

Exercise 2. 

Fill each of the blanks below with an adverb of place 
or direction. 

1 . AVhy do Americans go for fine scenery ? 

2. You will find faults you look for them. 

3. can be found wealthier men. 

4. The picnickers started in high glee. 

f). can be found truer patriots? 

C. The storm is drawing , 

7. My duty and my interest both urged me . 

8. waves our banner. 

9. Without were fightings, were fears. 

10. Why seek for that which is ? 

11. sleep the brave ? 

12. The pendulum swings and . 

Exercise 3. 

Fill each blank below with an adverb of manner. 

1. The mother speaks . 

2. The tree grows . 

3. Her fingers moved , 

4. The maid did her work . 

5. The message was sent . 

6. The children will watch . 

7. The dust will be laid . 

8. How they lift" the wounded man ! 

9. No one regrets having spoken . 

10. The waves beat against the cliff. 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

XLV. CLASSIFICATION OF ADVERBS (continued). 

Exercise. 

The child is dull. 

The child is rathe?- dull. 

The road was badl}^ damaged. 

The 7'oad was veri/ hadly damaged. 



Copy the following sentences and fill each blank, as 
in the examples above, with an adverb of degree, showing 
how much or how little of the quality is expressed by the 
following adjective or adverb. Try to use each modifying 
word but once. 

1. The night was dark. 

2. The danger is remote. 

3. His strength is exhausted. 

4. The combat has been fierce. 

5. The day was hot. 

6. The buds are only open. 

7. The task is done. 

8. You drove rapidly. 

9. The letter came late. 

10. kindly his reproof was given. 

11. Her assistance is welcome. 

12. It was pleasant to see him walk feebly. 

13. The letter must be copied neatly. 

14. The man has been troubled. 

15. I had been cordially received and entertained. 

16. The ground is covered with snow. 

We have now found four kinds of adverbs : — 

(1) Adverbs of time (when?). 

(2) Adverbs of place (Avhere?). 

(3) Adverbs of manner (how?). 

(4) Adverbs of degree (how much or how little?). 



PHRASES. 63 

As subclasses under adverbs of time we may note : 
adverbs of number, — as, once^ ttvice, thrice ; and adverbs 
of order, — as^ JirsU secondly^ etc. 

The degree of confidence with which a statement is 
made, is often shown by an adverb like certainly^ perhaps^ 
undoubtedly. 

Example : I will surely write 3^011, perhaps on Tuesday. 

Such words are modal adverbs. Yes^ nay^ no, and 7iot, 
are also classed as modal adverbs. 

XLVI. PHRASES. 
Exercise I. 

The cliffs along the river are steep and high. 

The group of Avords, along the river, in the sentence 
above, is used to modify the noun cliff's, by telling what 
cliffs are steep and high. 

(a) What does each Italicized group of words in the fol- 
lowing sentences tell ? 

(5) State whether the group is used as an adjective or 
as an adverb. 

1. The walls of the building were very thick. * 

2. The waves swept the sailors /row the deck. 

3. For three months the captain lived with me. 

4. The orbit of the earth is an ellipse. 

5. In 1620 the PilgTims landed at Plymouth. 

6. The fire in the grate is burning brightly. 

7. The tree behind the house was struck by lightning. 

8. The Psalms of David are found in the Old Testament. 

9. After dinner we will talk to Mm. 

10. The sign on the post was seen by every traveler. 

11. Heaven /rom all creatures hides the book of fate. 

12. The wheels of weary life at last stood still. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

A group of words used as a part of speech, and having 
neither subject nor predicate, is a phrase. 

A phrase takes its particular name from the part of 
speech for which it is used. Thus we have, in the sen- 
tences above, adjective phrases and adverb phrases.^ 

Exercise 2. 

Walls of the building. Swept /rom the deck. 



(^ct) Write as in the first example above, the nouns that 
are modified by phrases in the foregoing exercise, and 
after each noun write the phrase that modifies it. 

(h) Write as in the second example above, the verbs that 
are modified by phrases, and after each verb write the 
phrase or phrases that modify it. 

XLVIL PHRASES {continued). 

Exercise I. 

A path of greater safety = A safer path. 
Cheerful at all times = Always cheerful. 



In the same way use adjectives or adverbs in place of 
the phrases in Italics below. 

1. An act of courage. U. Working in earnest. 

2. Acted upon honor. 12. Disturbances of the atmosphere. 

3. Scenes ii nature. 13. Told with simplicity. 

4. Joys of home. 14. Send without delay. 

5. A coat lined loith fur. 15. Mine by right. 

6. Resorts of fashion. 16. Two worked to advantage. 

7. Emotion beyond control. 17. In an excited manner. 

8. The history of America. 18. Returned in triumph. 

9. YiQdXofthesun. 19. It was done m Zjas/e. 

10. Without excuse. 20. A reputation toithout spot. 

1 Noun phrases will be studied in Part II. 



PREPOSITIONS. 65 

Exercise 2. 

The water gradually subsided = By degrees the water 

subsided. 
Soon he awoke = After a sJiort time he awoke. 



In the same way, use phrases in place of the adjectives 
and adverbs in Italics below. 

1. Fond of open-air life. 13. Instantly ceased. 

2. The people's welfare. 14. Spoke verij angrily. 

3. Sorrowful moments. 15. Flew afar. 

4. A resting place. 16. Always hopeful. 

5. Domestic joys. 17. Cheered enthusiastically. 

6. A devout spirit. 18. A journey c^eajw/z/ taken. 

7. Botanical study. 19. Morally pure. 

8. Human needs. 20. Quietly withdrew. 

9. A royal gift. 21. Were brought together. 

10. A guiltless soul. 22. Was easily done. 

11. Floral designs. 23. Exceedingly important. 

12. Local color. 24. Musically inclined. 



XLVIII. PREPOSITIOlsrS. 
Examine the following sentence. 

For a week the hoys in camp lived upon fish which they 
caught in the lake. 

What question is answered by the phrase, for a week ? 
upon fish 9 in the lake ? 

What part of speech is the last word in each phrase ? 

Turn to Lesson XLVI., and tell to what part of speech 
the last word in every phrase belongs. 

You find that the last word in each of these phrases is 
either a noun or a pronoun. The first word in all such 
phrases (of in., for., from., on., etc.) is called a preposition 
(placed before^, 

MET. ENG. GKAM. — 5 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

A preposition is a word used before a noun or a pronoun to 
explain its relation to another -word in the sentence. 

The noun or pronoun used with a preposition in making 
a phrase is called its object. 

The preposition really connects the phrase of which it 
forms a part, with the word which the phrase modifies. For 
example, in the sentence, William walked from the city^ 
from is a preposition connecting the phrase, /row the city^ 
with the verb walked. The phrase modifies the verb by 
telling from what place William walked. 

A preposition defines the relation which exists between 
the noun or pronoun that follows it and the word modified 
by the phrase. 

The modified word may be a noun, an adjective, a verb, 
or an adverb ; as, — 

NOUNS. VERBS. 

A head of hair. He stood by a fountain. 

A house with a piazza. She wrote with a pen. 

ADJECTIVES. ADVERBS. 

He was pale with anger. He spoke wisely for a child. 

He is free from care. They provided sufficiently for my needs. 

Nouns are frequently used as adverbs to express when, 
how, how much, how far, etc. 

Examples : I met him last Thursday. You wrote thi-ee times. He 
walked twenty miles yesterday. The pole is ten feet 
long. He went home. 

In such cases as the foregoing, the nouns are parts of 
adverb phrases from which the prepositions have disap- 
peared. 

Examples: I met him (^on) last Thursday. He w^ent Qo his) 
home. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 67 

Exercise. 

The man at the mast-head saw the sun just rising above his 
horizon. 

PHRASES., WHAT THEY MODIFY. KINDS. PREPOSITIONS. 

at the mast-head man adjective at 

above his horizon rising adverbial above 



Point out the phrases in the following sentences, tell 
what they modify, and whether they are adjective or 
adverbial ; also name the prepositions. 

1. The fortress stands on the top of a hill two hundred feet high. 

2. Our forefathers purchased liberty with their blood. 

3. The two tramps hung about the station till midnight. 

4. The general led his army through the valley. 

5. Please reserve a lower berth in the sleeping-car that leaves Cleve- 

land for Cincinnati on Monday. 

6. The eagle hovered over the valley, and then, darting through the 

air, struck his talons into the quivering flesh of the poor lamb. 

7. The home of the bear is amidst the caves of the mountain-side. 

8. He was banished from the city by his patron. 



XLIX. CONJUNCTIONS. 
Exercise I. 

Moses are fragrant. Pinks are fragrant. 

What is the subject of the first statement? of the sec- 
ond? What is the predicate of the first statement? of 
the second? Combine the statements without repeating 
any words. What word now connects the two subjects ? 



(a) In the same way combine the following statements, 
omitting unnecessary words, and tell what words are con- 
nected, and how. 



68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

1. Jane was kind. Jane was patient. 

2. Mary was diligent. Lucy was diligent. 

3. William went there promptly. William went there cheerfully. 

4. Jason is a painter. Jason is a glazier. 

5. Ellen writes. Ellen ciphers. 

(6) Expand each of the following sentences into two 
connected statements. 

1. Arthur was poor but proud. 

2. Kate or Lottie will sing. 

3. There stands a proud though childlike form. 

4. Thanks were then spoken to the children and to their parents. 

Exercise 2. 

(<a^) How many and what statements are there in each 
of the following sentences ? 

1. Abraham Lincoln wrote the Emancipation Proclamation. 

2. The stars shone brightly, and the night was bitterly cold. 

3. We were very hungry, but our knapsacks had been left behind, 

and no food could be bought at the farm-houses. 

(5) In the second sentence, what word connects the 
statements? In the third sentence, what word connects 
the first and second statements ? the second and third ? 

"Words used to connect words, phrases, or propositions, 
are classed as conjunctions. 

A word and a phrase performing the same office are 
sometimes connected by a conjunction. 

Example : I was sicJc and in prison (imprisoned) . 

Exercise 3. 

Point out the conjunctions in the following sentences, 
and tell what they connect. 

1. The birds sang and the plow boy whistled. 

2. Man must work or he will be worthless. 

3. The prisoner was innocent, though the crowd thought him guilty. 



SENTENCES, SIMPLE AND COMPOUND. 69 

4. We love him because he first loved us. 

5. We listened, but we heard nothing. 

6. She was ill and she was very poor, 

7. The forest was dense ; moreover the sky was clouded. 

8. The time was short, still he could not decide. 

9. He had won, yet he was not happy. 

10. AVealth will not bring happiness, nor will fame yield peace. 
11. 



L. SENTENCES, SIMPLE AND COMPOUND. 

A simple statement, question, or command may be a 
complete sentence ; as, I telegraphed to my friend. Or it 
may form only part of a sentence ; as, I telegraphed to 
my friend^ and he came immediately to my house. 

A sentence that contains but one statement, question, 
or command is called a simple sentence. 

Examples : Washington's army was composed of raw recruits. 
Was Washington ever known to despair? 
Stand by your guns, my brave fellows ! 

A simple sentence lias but one subject and one predi- 
cate, though either or both of these may be compound, as 
shown in the examples below. 

Examples : — 
Their glory and their might shall perish. (Compound subject and 

simple predicate.) 
She raised her jeweled hand and flung her tresses back. (Simple 

subject and compound predicate.) 
The forests and the rivers sang and shouted. (Compound subject 

and compound predicate.) 

Point out the subject and predicate in each of the 
foregoing examples. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

Two or more independent statements, questions, or 
commands, joined together by one or more conjunctions, 
either expressed or understood form a compound sentence. 

Examples : — 
Washington's army was composed of raw recruits, but he was never 

known to despair. 
I must refuse your generous offer, or I must break my word with my 

employer. 
Do you ask me to prove false to my word, and shall I become a traitor 

to my country? 
Stand by your guns, and never give up the ship, my brave lads. 

Point out the independent propositions^ in each of the 
four sentences above, and the conjunction that joins them. 



LI. SENTENCES, SIMPLE AND COMPOUND {continued). 

Exercise I. 

(a) Tell whether the following sentences are simple or 
compound, and separate each compound sentence into 
simple statements. 

(5) Point out each subject and predicate. 

1. Some men are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have 

greatness thrust upon them. 

2. Seek, and ye shall find. 

3. For a week, bread and water formed the diet of the prisoner. 

4. The statements of the plaintiff were denied by the defendant. 

5. Listen, my children, and you shall hear 
Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere. 

6. Come to the sunset tree ! 

The day is past and gone ; 
The woodman's ax lies free. 
And the reaper's work is done, 
iSee page 17. 



CLAUSES, ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB. 71 

Exercise 2. 

(a) Tell whether the following sentences are simple 
or compound, and why. 

(5) In each sentence, point out the subject and the 
predicate, and tell whether each is simple or compound. 

1. Professor Agassiz and his wife traveled extensively in South 

America. 

2. Madame C played and sung during the evening. 

3. Doctor Kane and Lieutenant Greely conducted expeditions into the 

Arctic Ocean, and suffered many hardships. 

(c) In such sentences as. Four and jive make nine^ John 
and Henry are brothers^ does the word and connect state- 
ments or words ? 

(c?) In He told the story to me and to Mr. Brown., does 
the word and connect statements, phrases, or words ? 



LIL CLAUSES, ADJECTIVE AND ADVERB. 
Exercise. 
Tell the use of the Italicized groups of words. 

1. The boy lolio was sick has returned home. 

2. Stand where you are. 

3. The raw recruits proved to be men of courage. 

4. This is the gentleman wliorti I met in Washington. 
.5. They that are whole need not a physician. 

6. I learned this poem when I was a child. 

(a) What is a phrase ? Which of the Italicized groups 
of words in the foregoing exercise are phrases ? Why ? 

A group of -words used as a part of speech, and having a 
subject and predicate, is a clause. 

A clause takes its particular name from the part of 
speech for which it is used. 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

(J) Which of the foregoing Italicized groups of words 
are clauses ? Tell the kind of clause, and give your reason. 

((?) Point out the subject and predicate in each clause. 

(c?) How does a clause differ from a phrase in form? 
How in use ? 



Lin. NOUN CLAUSES. 

Examine the following sentences. 

The story is true. That my friend has lost his watch is true. 

Name the subject in the first sentence ; the predicate. 
In the second sentence, we have the same predicate as 
in the first. What is now the subject? Is the subject a 
phrase or a clause ? Why ? If the subject were written 
by itself, which word would be unnecessary ? Is the sub- 
ject used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb? Give a 
reason for your ansAver. 

I heard the report. 

I heard that the train had been wrecked. 

What words in the second sentence take the place of 
the words the report in the first? What part of speech is 
the word report in the first sentence? What is the com- 
plement of the verb heard in the second sentence ? Is the 
complement a phrase or a clause ? Why ? What kind ? 

The news is a disappointment. 

The news is^ that a cold ivave is coming. 

What is the complement in tlie first sentence ? in the 
second sentence? Is the latter complement a phrase or 
a clause? What kind? What name do we give to a 
verb that requires a complement ? 



CLAUSAL ANALYSTS. 73 

In this and the precedmg lesson, we have studied three 
kinds of clauses — adjective, adverb, and noun. 

A sentence containing one independent proposition and 
oiie or more dependent propositions, or clauses, is called a 
complex sentence. (See page 17.) 

Exercise. 

(a) Which of the sentences below are simple and which 
complex? Give the reason in each case. 

(h) Classify the clauses as adjective, adverb, or noun. 

1. A strange feeling had been growing upon him while he read. 

2. A young man who lived in a cabin on Blue Hill sent out a 

careful report of the year's storms. 

3. Enjoyment may afford strength to mind and body. 

4. That the gate had been left open was quite forgotten. 

5. Arts followed where Rome's eagle led. 

6. Four wet and muddy boys walked in at the gate. 

7. The home of Florence Nightingale is walled about by the prayers 

that rise for it from a thousand grateful hearts. 

8. Before the physician arrived, the man who had lain unconscious 

was restored. 

9. You will find your books where you left them. 

10. " You have done me a real service," he said. 

11. Life is what we make it. 

12. While he slept the enemy came. 

LIV. CLAUSAL ANALYSIS. 
Exercise. 

(First oral and then written.) 

Mai^y has learned her lesson while you have heen idle. 

CLAUSE. W^HAT IT MODIFIES. KIND. 

while you have been idle has learned adverb 



(a) Point out each clause in the following sentences. 
Tell what it modifies, and what kind of clause it is. 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

1. I rank him with men who speak for justice. 

2. Now select the men whom you will have in your company. 

3. That he has failed 1 is now admitted. 

4. The thirsty animal makes a rush when he scents the water 

springs. 

5. They must still love the land in which they have left the bones of 

their sires. 

6. Strike till the last armed foe expires. 

7. He who is gone, left me in thy care. 

8. Friends whose memory we cherish so dearly, once trod these paths. 

9. You helped me when I was in need. 

10. Let us use our strength before we lose it. 

11. Why he delays, perplexes me. 

12. Wolves are seldom seen where the population is dense. 

13. That you have wronged me, doth appear in this. 

14. Conscience is a great ledger-book in which all our offenses are 

written and registered. 

15. He cometh unto you with a tale which holdeth children from play 

and old men from the chimney-corner. 

16. They, while their companions slept, 
Were toiling upward in the night. 

A compound sentence may be complex in one or more 
of its members. 

Examples: The rose is fairest when 'tis budding new. 

And hope is brightest when it dawns from fears. 
And when he played, the atmosphere 
Was filled with magic, and the ear 
Caught echoes of that Harp of Gold 
Whose music had so weird a sound. 

(h) Point out the complex members in the examples- 
above. 

(c) What clauses are in the following sentence, and 
how are they connected ? 

He is the man who was so poor, or who seemed poor. 

1 The noun clause, when used as a subject, is dependent upon the rest of the 
sentence for its meaning; but it is not a modifier. 



CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 75 

LV. CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 

(Review Lesson XIX., page 33.) 

In the expressions, the man who is here ; the child whose 
parents are dead ; the gentleman to whom you spoke; the 
tree which was planted ; the best hoy that entered our school ; 
we took such things as we wanted ; each word not in Italics 
evidently represents some noun in the same expression. 

Point out the nouns for which the foregoing words 
stand. 

These words, who^ whose^ whom, ivhich, that, and as, are 
pronouns because they stand for nouns, — their antece- 
dents. They are conjunctive pronouns when they join to 
their antecedents the clauses in which the pronouns stand. 

A conjunctive pronoun is one that connects a clause of 
which it forms a part to some word which the clause 
modifies. 

Conjunctive pronouns are frequently called relative pro- 
nouns. 

Exercise. 

(a) Point out the clauses in the following sentences and 
tell what they modify. 

(5) Point out each conjunctive pronoun and its ante- 
cedent. 

1. They who live virtuously help those who come after. 

2. Ventilation is a matter which few understand. 

3. The peasant enjoyed his simple home with her who won his heart. 

4. Here was a girl who never saw a flower. 

5. He knew the arts in which the wdse excel. 

6. Those whom I reverence, I fear. 

7. We have lost a neighbor w^hose heart knew others' woes. 

8. Hold him in esteem whose hand has helped the poor. 

9. Often I think of the beautiful town 

That is seated by the sea. 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

LVI. ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS. 
Exercise I. 

(a) Rewrite the following extract from "The Sketch 
Book," using only simple sentences. 

I am fond of loitering about country churches ; and this was so 
delightfully situated, that it frequently attracted me. It stood on a 
knoll, round which a small stream made a beautiful bend, and then 
wound its way through a long reach of soft meadow scenery. The 
church was surrounded by yew-trees which seemed almost coeval with 
"itself ... I was seated there one still sunny morning, watching two 
laborers who were digging a grave. 

(b} With the book closed, express the meaning of the 
extract, by combining your simple sentences in any Avay 
you choose. 

Exercise 2. 

(a) Write the following story, using simple sentences 
as far as possible. 

A Dishonest Beggar. 

A dishonest beggar, finding himself reduced to his last penny, made 
up his mind that he would pretend to be dumb. He arrived at a town 
where he had begged once or twice before. In one of the streets he 
met a gentleman who had before given him money, and so remembered 
his face and spoke to him. The beggar made him no answer. " Hullo ! " 
cried the gentleman, "how long have you been dumb?" "From the 
day of my birth," answered the beggar, forgetting himself. 

(5) Rewrite the story of A Disho7iest Beggar, recom- 
bining your simple sentences. 

(c) Compare your story with the one in the book. 

Note to the Teacher. — Such exercises are exceedingly valuable 
as a preparation for original composition. Material for practice may 
be selected from any well-written book. 



INTERJECTIONS. 77 



LVII. INTERJECTIONS. 

Words like oA, 0, aA, pshaiu^ humph, huri-ah, alas, etc., 
expressing sudden emotion on the part of the speaker or 
writer, — feelings of pain, pleasure, disgust, pity, contempt, 
etc., — do not form any part of the sentence ; that is, they 
belong neither to the subject nor to the predicate. 

They are called interjections (throivn in or throion between). 

A v/ord used to express strong feeling, and not related to 
any other word in the sentence, is called an interjection. 

Exercise. 

Tell what feelings are expressed by the interjection in 
each sentence below. 

1. Ah ! bitter chill it was. 

2. O how delicious are these autumn fruits ! 

3. Pshaw ! your grievance is nothing. 

4. What ! you will rob me of my money and then take my life? 

5. Thou too sail on, O ship of State ! 

6. Hark ! I hear the note of a bluebird. 

7. Alas, poor Yorick ! 

8. Zounds ! I will hear no more of this. 

9. Hurrah ! the field is won. 

10. Bravo ! he has saved the child's life. 

11. Oh! Idle, Horatio. 

12. O for a lodge in some vast wilderness ! 

13. O that those lips had language. 

The interjection 0, besides introducing an exclamation, 
is used for the sign of address, as in example 5 above ; 
also to express a wish, as in example 12. should 
never be followed by an exclamation point, and seldom by 
a comma. 

Oh expresses deep feeling, whether of pleasure or pain, 
and is often followed by an exclamation point or a comma. 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 



LVIII. USE DETERMINES CLASSIFICATION. 

We have already learned that words are divided into 
classes, or parts of speech, according to their use in sen- 
tences. Hence it follows that a word is not a part of 
speech until it is used in a sentence. 

Nearly all words may be used as different parts of 
speech in different sentences. 

In the sentence, My pen is a good one, the word pen is a 
noun. In the sentence, I will pen a short note, the word 
pen is a verb. 

Note to the Teacher. — Let it be constantly borne in mind that 
in parsing or analysis the matter of first importance is the function, 
or use, of the part under consideration, because this use determines 
the classification of the words, phrases, and clauses. 

Exercise. 
Tell to what part of speech each Italicized word or 
group of words belongs, and why. 

1. Let us go forward. 

2. They yvillforwai'd our plan. 

3. Not aW foj'ward boys become able men. 

4. This happy home is mine. 

5. That stalwart fellow works in a mine. 

6. The enemy will mine the fort. 

7. Litde was expected of the miser's son. 

8. That unwise student sleeps little. 

9. A little child shall lead them. 

10. The judge will/ne the prisoner. 

11. No one cares to pay the Jine. 

12. In Jine, all prefer he should suffer. 

13. Fine feathers do not msike Jine birds. 

14. This ^a^r-root is pungent. 

15. These earnest leaders never Jlag. 

16. Stand by the Jlag, my brave comrades. 

17. In peasant or divine, true worth will shine. 



QUOTATIONS, DIRECT AND INDIRECT. 79 

18. The hand that made us is divine. 

19. Who could cfzyme the result ? 

20. These roses diffuse their perfume through the hall. 

21. His style is too diffuse. 

22. Youths and maidens are dancing on the green. 

23. April showers bring the green grass. 

24. We mean to shun the 7nean spirit of the miser. 

25. For such kind effort, praise is meet. 

26. We meet again in gladness. 

27. After forty, some persons age rapidly. 

28. What is the average age of man ? 

29. Can you match this light silk? 

30. Forest fires light the whole region. 

31. The morning light is breaking. 

32. The cobbler's last will last till he has dropped his last coin into the 

till. 

33. Jason was the head of the former enterprise. 

34. Who Aea^5 this scheme ? 

35. We shall lay our plans to entertain a hundred delegates, clerical 

and lay. 

36. It can weather the roughest gale. 

37. ■ The weather^ to-day, is very fine. 

38. The prisoner's conduct was always good. 

39. The guide will conduct you by the nearest route. 



LIX. QUOTATIONS, DIRECT AND INDIRECT. 

The repetition of the exact words used by another in 
the expression of thought, is called a direct quotation. 

When the thought of another is expressed in different 
words from those used by him, the expression is called an 
indirect quotation. 

Examples: Webster said, "I still live." (Direct.) 

Webster said that he still lived. (Indirect.) 

In written composition, the direct quotation is inclosed 
within quotation marks, and is separated from the rest of 
the sentence by a comma. It begins with a capital letter. 



80 EI^GLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

The indirect quotation is usually introduced by the 
word tJiat^ a comma being placed before the that^ unless 
the quotation consists of a single statement; no quota- 
tion marks are used, and the quotation does not begin 
with a capital. 

Titles of books, pictures, poems, or newspapers, assumed 
names of writers, etc., are sometimes inclosed within quota- 
tion marks ; as, Bryant's " Thanatopsis^^^ the " Sistine Ma- 
donna^^ '-'- Grail Hamilton^^ '-'- Auld Lang SymT 



Exercise I. 

Change the following sentences from the direct to the 
indirect form of quotation. Notice that, besides the differ- 
ence in punctuation, the verbs and pronouns may require 
to be changed. 

1. Tom said, " I shall try to run back into Plymouth, where I live." 

2. Proudly exhibiting his double-eagle, Tom said, "Here is what I 

got for my labor." 

3. The father said grimly, " That is very well, no doubt." 

4. He muttered, " I alone am to blame." 

5. Priscilla said to John Alden, " By these words I see how little 

you prize me." 

6. The Puritan maiden said, "I have been thinking all day of the 

hedge-rows of England." 

7. The poet cried, " Now that is after my own heart." 

8. The maiden said, with gentle look, "You are welcome, Hia- 

watha." 

9. Hypatia said, "I have done no wrong, and I fear no punish- 

ment." 

10. "I am a plain man," said he, "and know nothing about 

argument." 

11. "lam so sensible," Mr. Macaulay said, "of the kindness with 

which the House has listened to me, that I will detain you no 
longer." 



COMPOUND WORDS. 81 

Exercise 2. 

Change the following passages from the indirect to. 
the direct form. 

1. Mr. Brougham said to his constituents, that he trusted himself 

once more in their faithful arms; he flung himself again on 
their protection ; he called aloud to them to bear their own 
cause in their hearts. 

2. Addison wrote in the Spectator, that when he looked upon the 

tombs of the great, every emotion of envy died in him ; when 
he read the epitaphs of the beautiful, every inordinate desire 
went out ; when he met with the grief of parents upon a tomb- 
stone, his heart melted with compassion. 

3. The herald advanced, and proclaimed that these were prisoners 

taken in arms against the Roman senate and people. 

4. Mr. Chapin said that we who dwell upon the land think too little 

of the privations of those who do business on the sea. 

5. He was once heard to say that the child's grief throbs against 

the round of its little heart as heavily as the man's sorrow. 

6. Jones said, that, as he was traveling one evening, and sat, dismal 

and homesick, in the cold car, he heard two men upon the seat 
before him talking of lectures. 



LX. COMPOUND WORDS. 

Two or more words used together to express one idea 
are usually compounded : they are sometimes written as 
one word, and sometimes joined by a hyphen ; as, inkstand^ 
horseman^ to-morrow^ a five-cent fare. 

A compound word will frequently express quite a dif- 
ferent idea from the one expressed when its parts are 
written separately. For example, a marble box is made of 
marble, but a marble-box is a box in which marbles are 
kept. Not every black bird is a blackbird. 

The hyphen usually connects the parts of a compound 

MET. ENG. GKAM. — 6 



82 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 



word which is new or is little used ; as, ant-hill^ a rough- 
and-tumhle frolic. 

When the word is in common use, the hyphen is usually 
omitted ; as, railroad^ inkstand^ blackboard. Still, no inva- 
riable rule can be given for the use or omission of the 
hyphen in compound words. Consult Webster's Dictionary. 

Words that denote cardinal numbers and do not express 
exact tens (twenty, thirty, etc.) are written with the 
hyphen ; as, forty-four^ ninety-seven^ one hundred twenty- 
three. 

A compound word frequently takes the place of a phrase 
or a clause. Thus, instead of a bird with a red head, we 
say, a red-headed bird. For a coach that moves slowly., we 
may say, a slow-going coach. 



Exercise I. 

Explain the difference in meaning of the following 
words when used separately and when compounded. 

good man goodman black bird blackbird 

long boat longboat free mason freemason 

green house greenhouse poor house poorhouse 

green room greenroom poor laws poor-laws 

church yard churchyard round house roundhouse 

Jew's harp jew's-havp black smith blacksmith 

light house lighthouse blue book blue-book 

mean time meantime red wood redwood 

glass house glasshouse town house townhouse 

Exercise 2. 

(«) Make a list of five compound words, not in this 
lesson, that you think should be written Avith the hyphen. 

(6) Make a list of five compound words, not in this 
lesson, that you think should be written without the 
hyphen, and give the reason for your opinion. 



ANALYSIS. 83 

Exercise 3. 

(a) Express the following numbers in words. 

87, 130, 257, 1533, 2854, 68,021. 

(5) Change the form of the following expressions by 
using a compound word in each. 

1. A stove heated to redness. 6. A fare that cost five cents. 

2. A pole twenty feet long. 7. A manner befitting business. 

3. A house that looks well. 8. Music that stirs the soul. 

4. Roofs shaped like domes. 9. Signals that are repeated often. 

5. An influence reaching far. 10. Veterans scarred in battle. 

11. A guest expected for a long time. 

12. An instrument having a sharp edge. 

13. A toil that never comes to an end. 

14. A want that has been felt a long time. 

15. A portrait the size of the living face. 

16. A difference as wide as the world. 

17. Windows that are crowned with ivy. 

18. Bees that are loaded with honey. 



LXI. ANALYSIS. 
Exercise. 

Before analyzing a sentence, it should be written in its 
natural order. 

Write the analysis of the following extract from 
Evangeline. Point out — • 

(«) The compound sentences, and resolve each into two 
or more simple sentences. 

(5) The subject and predicate of each simple sentence. 

(c) The phrases ; tell the kind, and what they modify. 

(c?) The adjectives and adverbs; tell their use, and what 
they modify. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAK, PART I. 

Gayly the old man sang to the vibrant sound of his fiddle, 

And anon with his wooden shoes beat time to the music. 

Merrily, merrily whirled the wheels of the dizzying dances 

Under the orchard trees and down the path to the meadows ; 

Old folk and young together, and children mingled among them. 

Fairest of all the maids was Evangeline, Benedict's daughter ! 

Noblest of all the youths was Gabriel, son of the blacksmith ! 

So passed the morning away. And lo ! with a summons sonorous 

Sounded the bell from its tower, and over the meadows a drum beat. 

Thronged ere long was the church with men. Without, in the church- 
yard. 

Waited the women. They stood by the graves and hung on the head- 
stones 

Garlands of autumn-leaves and evergreens fresh from the forest. 

Then came the guard from the ships, and . . . 

Entered the sacred portal. 

LXII. ANALYSIS (continued). 

The following form of analysis, either oral or written, 
will be found convenient in this grade : — 

Form of Analysis. 

(1) Arrange the sentence in its natural order, and, if 
written, separate the subject from the predicate by a 
vertical line. 

(2) Kind of sentence, and why so classed. 

(3) Clauses, kind, and what they modify. 

(4) Phrases, kind, and what they modify. 

(5) Modifying words, kind, and what they modify. 

Note to the Teacher. — It is well to have some /orm of analysis 
that may be used by all the pupils in a class. This facilitates the 
criticism of written analysis, by making the work of the class uni- 
form. At the same time it should be remembered that all forms of 
analysis are more or less mechanical, and are almost sure to waste 
time if adhered to constantly. Time and space may sometimes be 
saved by giving only the first and the last words of subjects, predi- 
cates, phrases, and clauses. 



ANALYSIS. 85 



Analysis. 



1. Many flocks that have survived the ordeal of a 
droughty \ have been silently swallowed by a flood. 

(1) The present order is the natural order. 

(2) This is a complex, declarative sentence, — complex 
because it contains a clause, and declarative because it 
asserts a fact. 

(3) The clause, that have . . . drought, is adjective, 
and modifies j^O(?A:s. 

(4) The phrase, of a drought., is adjective, and modifies 
ordeal ; the phrase, by a flood., is adverbial, and modifies 
have been swallowed. 

(5) Many is an adjective, modifying the noun flocks ; 
that is a conjunctive pronoun connecting flocks with the 
clause which modifies it ; ordeal is the object of the verb 
have survived; silently is an adverb modifying the verb 
have been swallowed. 

2. For the structure that we raise., 
Time is with materials filled. 

(1) Time \ is filled with materials for the structure that 
we raise. 

(2) This is a complex, declarative sentence, — complex 
because it contains a clause, and declarative because it 
asserts a fact. 

(3) That we raise is an adjective clause, modifying 
structure. 

(4) The phrase, ivith materials^ is adverbial, and modifies 
is filled ; the phrase, for the structure^ is adjective, and 
modifies materials. 

(5) The is an adjective, or definite article, modifying 
or limiting structure. 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I. 

Exercise. 
In like manner, analyze the following sentences. 

1. My daughter's teacher has a library of choice books. 

2. We look at the play of children with delight. 

3. Storms move in the direction of the warmest and dampest air. 

4. Upon the ruins of every old castle our young traveler looked with 

veneration. 

5. Irving, the author, was a mischievous boy. 

6. America, our proud and happy home, we love thee. 

7. Letters for our London friends may be sent by the steamer. 
B. Whose was the sinewy arm that flung 

Defiance to the ring? 
9. The old man keeps in remembrance the happy days of his child- 
hood. 

LXIII. ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

On page 18 you learned that to analyze a sentence is to 
separate it into the parts of which it is composed. 

You have now learned the eight parts of speech, and the 
relations which seven of these bear to each other in a 
sentence. Classifying the words of a sentence as parts of 
speech, and naming their relations to other words, is called 
parsing. 

In analyzing, the important things to be known are : 
(1) the subject and predicate of the sentence; and (2) 
the modifying clauses, phrases, and words, together with 
their office. In parsing, give the part of speech and the con- 
struction of each word, and state its use in the sentence. 

Analysis and parsing may be combined, as in the follow- 
ing illustration : — 

We shall need the aid of friends. 

Analysis : This is a simple, declarative sentence, be- 
cause it contains but one statement. We is the subject; 
shall need, the simple predicate ; the aid of friends, the 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 87 

complete objective complement of the verb need. The 
object aid is modified by the adjective tJie^ and by the 
adjective phrase of friends., which tells the kind or source 
of aid. 

Parsing : We is a pronoun, because it is used in place 
of a noun ; shall need is a verb-phrase, making an assertion 
concerning the persons denoted by the subject we ; the is 
an adjective (sometimes called a definite article), limiting 
the noun aid; aid and friends are nouns, because they 
are used as names ; 0/ is a preposition, explaining the rela- 
tion between aid and friends. 

LXIV. SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Note to the Teacher. — The selections for analysis and parsing- 
have been made with much care, and are here so arranged as to avoid, 
in the early stages of the work, all difficult constructions. The demand 
upon the pupil, in any part of the course, should be limited to such 
matters as have been studied. As the study progresses, the analysis 
and parsing may be more complete, but unnecessary repetitions of 
familiar facts should be avoided. 

1. The unwearied sun from day to day 
Does his Creator's power display. 
And publishes to every land 

The work of an Almighty hand. 

2. Woodman, spare that tree ! 

Touch not a single bough ! 
In youth it sheltered me, 
And I'll protect it now. 

• 3. That old familiar tree. 

Whose glory and renown 
Are spread o'er land and sea. 

And wouldst thou hew it down ? 
Woodman, forbear thy stroke ! 

Cut not its earth-bound ties^ 
O spare that aged oak. 

Now towerino- to the skies ! 



88 ENGLISH GRAIVUVIAR, PART I. 

4. Sweet are the uses of adversity. 

5. Desire of wealth is characteristic of the civilized man. 

6. Virtue is bold, and goodness never fearful. 

7. Small cheer and great welcome make a merry feast. 

8. A change came o'er the spirit of my dream. 
The boy was sprung to manhood ; in the wilds 
Of fiery climes he made himself a home, 
And his soul drank their sunbeams. 

9. Wisdom and goodness, to the vile seem vile. 

10. How poor are they that have no patience ! 

11. Rebellion to tyrants is obedience to God. 

12. Sweet mercy is nobility's true badge. 

13. The stone that is rolling, can gather no moss. 

14. After life's fitful fever he sleeps well. 

15. Stand not upon the order of your going, 
But go at once. 

16. The evil that men do, lives after them ; 
The good is oft interred with their bones. 

17. He jests at scars that never felt a wound. 

18. Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund day 
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain tops. 

19. That is no slander, sir, which is a truth. 

20. Through tattered clothes small vices do appear; 
Robes and furr'd gowns hide all. 

21. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 

22. Ill blows the wind that profits nobody. 

23. The better part of valor is discretion. 

24. Suspicion always haunts the guilty mind. 

25. A friend should bear his friend's infirmities. 

26. Fearless minds climb soonest into crowns. 

27. Fortune brings in some boats that are not steered. 

28. Misery acquaints a man with strange bedfellows. 

29. Man proposes, but God disposes. 

30. The spirit shall return to Him who gave it. 

31. Each lot has its own blessings. 

32. Rome bound with oak her patriots' brows. 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 89 

33. Those who merit most contempt and hate 
Do most deserve our pity. 

34. Home-keeping youths have ever homely wits. 

35. Pity the laden one ; this wandering woe 
May visit you and me. 

36. The brightest of all things, the sun, has its spots. 

37. Intelligence and courtesy not always are combined ; 
Often in a wooden house a golden room you find. 

38. In the Acadian land, on the shores of the Basin of Minas, 
Distant, secluded, still, the little village of Grand Pre 
Lay in the fruitful valley. 

39. Many an inherited sorrow that has marred a life has been 

breathed into no human ear. 

40. Now would I give a thousand furlongs of sea for an acre of 

barren ground. 

41. Cover the embers. 

And put out the light; 
Toil comes with the morning, 
And rest with the night. 

42. Mountains which once reared their heads above the clouds have 

been gnawed down by the tooth of time. 

43. Whole continents that were built on foundations of granite and 

clothed with somber forests have been eaten up by the sea. 

44. The oldest known rocks are built of the ruins of some wasted land 

on which human eyes never rested. 

45. The Father of Waters seizes the hills in his hands, and drags 

them down to the ocean . 

46. The sky is a drinking-cup 

That was overturned of old, 
And it pours in the eyes of men 
Its wine of airy gold. 

47. We drink that wine all day, 

Till the last drop is drained up ; 
And are lighted off to bed 
By the jewels in the cup ! 



We have learned, in Part L, that sentences may be divided into two 
parts, called subject and predicate. 

We have also learned that all the words of the language may be 
separated, according to their use in sentences, into eight classes, 
called parts of speech. 

We have found that groups of words, called phrases and clauses, 
are used as parts of speech. 

Of the eight parts of speech, the nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, 
adverbs, and conjunctions, may be divided into classes. We have 
already separated nouns into common and proper, and verbs into 
transitive and intransitive. Pronouns have been divided into personal 
and conjunctive. 

Many words in the language are inflected; that is, changed in 
form, or spelling, to indicate a change in the idea expressed. 

In Part II. the subjects of classification and inflection will be 
studied carefully. It will be necessary, however, first to take a general 
review of what we have already studied. 

90 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
Part IL 

LXV. GENERAL REVIEW. 

How many letters are there in the alphabet? For what 
purpose are they used? May all the letters represent 
sounds? Do they always represent sounds? Are there 
any letters that represent more than one sound? Give 
examples. 

What is a word ? What is a monosyllable ? a dissylla- 
ble ? a trisyllable ? a polysyllable ? Give examples. 

What is a sentence? What does a sentence express? 
Name and illustrate the different kinds of sentences. 
Name the two principal parts of a sentence. 

What is a clause ? a phrase ? How does a clause differ 
from a phrase ? Give an example of each in a sentence. 

Define each part of speech, and give an example of each 
in a sentence. 

Exercise. 

1. Alas for him who never sees 

2. The stars shine through his cypress-trees ! 

3. Who, hopeless, lays his dead away, 

4. Nor looks to see the breaking day 

5. Across the nnournful maibles play ! 

6. Who hath not learned, in hours of faith, 

7. The truth, to flesh and sense unknown, 

8. That Life is ever lord of Death, 

9. And Love can never lose its own ! 

91 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART 11. 

(a) What words may be substituted in place of alas for, 
in the first line of the foregoing exercise ? 

(J) Point out the adjective clause in lines 1 and 2. 
What is its simple predicate ? its entire predicate ? 

(c) What is the antecedent of the conjunctive pronoun 
in line 3 ? in line 6 ? 

(<^) What part of speech is hopeless f dead? away? 

{e) What does the conjunction nor connect ? 

(/) What phrases are there in lines 5, 6, and 7 ? What 
kind of phrases are they, and why? 

(^) What is the object of the transitive verb liath learned? 

(K) What part of speech is unknown, and what does it 
modify ? 

(^) What truth is referred to in line 7 ? 



LXVL GENERAL REVIEW {continued). 

Exercise I. 
Analyze the following sentences. (See page 85.) 

1. On a slender bough is hung the nest of an oi'iole. 

2. These earnest efforts will win success. 

3. See those luscious peaches and the mammoth clusters of grapes, 

the reward of care and toil. 

4. Has the grocer forgotten us, or does his errand-boy loiter on the 

way? 

5. Some lions are exceedingly fierce, and their roar is terrible. 

6. Herbert is a rather brilliant scholar, but he is a very disagreeable 

companion. 

7. Alas ! how soon their race was run ! 

8. Under a towering oak that stood in the midst of the village, knelt 

the chief and his children. 

9. The wind waved the branches, and the sun came out and turned 

those myriads of beads and drops to flashing prisms. 

10. I cannot love the man who does not love the song of happy birds. 

11. The glory of the butterfly is the starred brilliance of its wings. 



INFLECTION. 93 

Exercise 2. 
Analyze the following sentences. 

1. Go to the ant, thou sluggard. 

2. Every influence that breathes from Irving's writings is good and 

generous. 

3. The love of money is the root of all evil. 

4. The wise man is happy when he gains his own approbation. 

5. So long a train I had never before seen. 

6. A man who is diligent in business prospers. 

7. My mother, hovered thy spirit o'er thy sorrowing son ? 

8. In the songs of Burns, glow wild mirth and wild despair. 

9. The world should be thankful when the delicate fibers of the poet 

and man of genius are freely worked in its service. 
10. On the cross-beam under the Old South bell, 
The nest of the pigeon is builded well. 

LXVir. INFLECTION. 

Many words are changed in form to represent slight 
changes in the ideas expressed: as, hoy (meaning one 
boy), and hoys (meaning more than one boy) ; man (mean- 
ing one man), and man's (meaning that one man owns 
something). 

The word sweet has three forms in English — sweety 
sweeter^ sweetest. The word ivrite has five forms — write^ 
writes.^ ivrote^ ivriting^ written. 

Such derived forms are called inflections.^ 

Inflections are also called derivatives, but it should be 
remembered that there are two kinds of derivatives : — 

(1) English words made directly from other English 
words ; as, sweeter and sweetest from sweet ; writing and 
written from ivrite. 

1 The word inflection comes from two Latin words — the prefix in, and 
flectere, meaning to bend. An inflection in grammar is a word which has been 
bent out of its original shape. The words lorlles, wrote, wi'itincj, etc., are 
inflections of write ; sioeeter and sweetest are inflections of sweet. 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART n. 

(2) English words made from foreign words by means 
of prefixes and suffixes ; as, inflectioyi^ from the Latin root 
flee (in fleeter e)^ compounded with the prefix in and the 
suffix tion. 

A word, whether English or foreign, from which another 
word is derived, may be called a root word. Thus the 
Latin word fleetere, to bend, may be called the root word 
of iiifleetion; and the English word man^ the root word of 
U7imanly. 

Inflection, in grammar, is a change in the form of a -word to 
show a change in its meaning or use. 

The inflection of nouns and pronouns is called declension. 

Classifying the "words of a sentence as parts of speech, and 
naming their grammatical properties, inflections, and relations 
to other Tvords, is called parsing. 

Exercise. 

Write as many forms as you can of each word below, 
and tell the meaning of each form. 



father 


sister 


man 


lion 


clerk 


mother 


uncle 


woman 


goose 


judge 


brother 


niece 


widow 


doctor 


foreman 



LXVIIL NUMBER. 

Most nouns have two number forms, singular and plural. 

A noun that denotes but one object is in the singular 
number; as, hoy^ man^ house. 

A noun that denotes more than one object is in the 
plural number ; as, hoys^ men, houses. 

In nearly all nouns number is indicated by a change in 
the terminations, but in personal pronouns there is an 
entire change of words. 





NUMBER. 




9i 


Examples : — 

Nouns. 




Personal Pronouns. 


SING. PLURAL 

boy boys 
box boxes 
fly flies 




SING. 
I 

thou 

he, she, it 


PLURAL. 

we 

ye or you 

they 



pen 


cow 


book 


leaf 


shoe 


mouse 


match 


brush 



Number, in nouns and pronouns, is a distinction between 
one and more than one. 

Exercise I. 

(a) Copy the following nouns, and after each write its 
plural form. 

box fly paper calf 

knife kiss vase fence 

stamp church boot tooth 

pencil goose inkstand street 

(6) Select from the list and place in a column : (1) The 
nouns made plural by adding s. (2) The nouns made 
plural by adding es. (3) The nouns made plural in some 
other way. 

Nearly all nouns ending in silent e add only s in the 
plural. A syllable is added whenever the last sound in 
the singular form will not coalesce with the sound of s. 

Examples: Rose, fence, vase, prize, ache, village. 

((?) Which of the nouns in the following list add es in 
the plural, and why? 



^gg 


gas 


tax 


]est 


bath 


loss 


dish 


wedge 


muse 


zone 


iris 


brush 


rogue 


patch 


lunch 


crutch 


topaz 


bulb 


beach 


mayor 


onyx 


anvil 


canoe 


nephew 


turkey 


salad 


image 


shadow 


vulture 


anchor 


trench 


college 


process 


summons 


guinea 


frontier 


patriarch 


monarch 


genius 


partridge 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II. 

Singular nouns ending in the sound of ch (as in church'), 
soft g (as in wedge), s, x ( = A;s), z, or sA, add a syllable in 
the plural. 

(^) Note carefully the final sound in each noun of the 
foregoing list ; then state which of the nouns add a sylla- 
ble in forming the plural, and why. 

As most nouns are made plural by adding s or es to 
the singular, this is called the regular way of forming the 
plural. 

Exercise 2. 

Which of the following nouns form their plurals regu- 
larly ? Show how each of the others forms its plural. 



age 


child 


goddess 


mosque 


fireman 


booth 


inch 


mouse 


talisman 


cuckoo 


author 


tooth 


foot 


isthmus 


outgoing 


woman 


firman 


goose 


depth 


juryman 


Mussulman^ 


German 


Ottoman 


kerchief 



LXIX. NUMBER (continued^ 
Exercise I. 

(a) Twelve nouns ending in /, and three ending in/g, 
form their plurals in ves ; as, beef, half, self, thief, knife. 
Add as many as you can to the list. 

(b) Most nouns in/ and /e, however, form their plurals 
regularly ; as, beliefs, briefs, fifes, etc. Find five others. 

(c) All nouns in ff form their plurals regularly ; as, 
bluffs, cliffs, etc. Find five others.^ 

1 Words which end in the syllable "man" and are not compounds form 
their plurals regularly. 

■2 "The plural of .s^^^" has generally been written staves, — a puzzling and 
useless anomaly, both in form and sound. Staffs is sometimes used, and all 
the compounds of staff are regular." — Goold Broivn. 



IRREGULAR PLURALS OF NOUNS. 



97 



Exercise 2. 



(a) Select, from the following list of nouns, such as end 
in y preceded by a vowel, and after each Avrite its plural. 

(6) Select such as end in y preceded by a consonant, 
and after each write its plural. 



fly 


sky 


reply 


joy 


sty 


cry 


city 


key 


army 


daisy 


baby 


tray 


ray 


fairy 


toy 


story 


money 


buoy 


body 


lily 


berry 


boy 


penny 


jockey 


pony 


pansy 


quay 


donkey 


way 


ditty 


monkey 


lady 


candy 


ruby 


valley 


play 


quarry 


journey 


hobby 


story 


bounty 


enemy 



glory victory attorney chimney fancy turkey survey 

(c) How are the plurals of nouns ending in y preceded 
by a vowel formed?^ 

(c?) How are the plurals of nouns ending in y preceded 
by a consonant formed? 

Exception. — Nouns ending in y^ if names of persons, 
usually add s in the plural ; as, Henrys^ Marys. 



LXX. IRREGULAR PLURALS OF NOUNS. 



Exercise. 

(a) Write the plurals of foot., tooth., mouse, and tell 
whether the words are inflected by adding terminations, 
or by changing some of the letters. Are the changes 
made in vowels, in consonants, or in both ? Name three 
other nouns that form their plurals thus irregularly. 

(b} Name three nouns whose plurals end in e7i. Name 
one that adds the termination directly to the singular 
form. 

1 Account for the plural of soliloquy. 

MET. ENG. GRAM. — 7 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART H. 

Most nouns ending in o form their plurals by adding s. 
If, however, the final o is preceded by a consonant, the 
plural is usually formed by adding es ; as, negro^ negroes ; 
calico^ calicoes. 

Exceptions. — The words albino^ alto^ banjo, burro, 
canto, casifio, chromo, contralto, duodecimo, dynamo, halo, 
junto, lasso, llano, memento, octavo, piano, proviso, quarto, 
salvo, sirocco, solo, soprano, stiletto, two, tyro, and virtuoso 
add s only. 

News, politics, ethics, etc., are singular; as, The news 
is cheering. Riches is now commonly used as a plural. 

The words bellows, scissors, spectacles, pincers, shears, 
tongs, ashes, and some others, are always plural. 

Examples : Her spectacles are lost. The ashes a?^e hot. 

The plurals of some nouns are spelled in precisely the 
same way as the singulars ; as, deer, sheep, swine, grouse, 
herd (cattle), sail (ship). Also nouns in ese denoting a 
race ; as, Chifiese, Japanese. 

Some nouns have two plurals, with different meanings. 

Examples: — 

Brothers (of the same family). Brethren (of the same society). 

Cloths (kinds of cloth). Clothes (garments). 

Dies (stamps). Dice (small cubes). 

Fishes (individuals). Fish (quantity). 

Geniuses (men of genius). Genii (spirits) . 

Heads (of bodies). Head (cattle). 

Indexes (tables of contents). Indices (algebraic signs). 

Pennies (pieces of money). Pence (value in pennies). 

Sails (pieces of canvas). Sail (vessels). 

Shots (number of times fired). Shot (number of balls). 

Letters, figures, and other characters are made plural 
by annexing 's ; as, two 5's, four a's, three *'s. 



NUMBER OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 99 

When a name is preceded by a title, as Mr.^ Dr.^ or 
Miss^ the whole term may be made plural by making 
the title plural ; as, Mr. Brown^ Messrs. Brown ; Br. Leon- 
ard., Brs. Leonard ; Miss Palmer., the Misses Palmer. Or 
the name itself may be plural ; as, the two Miss Browns ; 
the three Miss Palmers. 

There is no invariable rule for forming the plurals of 
compound words when used as nouns. The most impor- 
tant word in the compound is usually pluralized; as, 
fathers-in-laiv. When the compound noun is regarded 
as a whole, the last word is pluralized; as, forget-me- 
nots. 

When the compound noun consists of two words in the 
nature of appositives, both are made plural; as, Kiiights 
Templars. 



LXXI. NUMBER OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

The pronoun /indicates the speaker, and is therefore in 
the singular number. 

We, our., and us, indicate that the speaker includes 
another or others with himself. We, our, and us are 
therefore plural. 

The pronoun you is used in addressing another or others, 
and in meaning may be either singular or plural. When 
used as a subject, however, it always takes a plural verb. 

Examples : You are a good boy. You are good children. 

The pronouns thou, thy, thine, and thee are in the singu- 
lar number. They are used in addresses to the Deity and 
by poets. The Quakers, or Friends, use these pronouns 
instead of the pronouns you, your, and yours. 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART 11. 

Exercise I. 

(a) Make an alphabetical list of the personal pronouns 
in the table on page 35. 

(b) With your book closed, write the word " singular " 
after the pronouns that are singular in meaning, write the 
word " plural " after the pronouns that are plural in mean- 
ing, and write "singular or plural" after pronouns that 
are sometimes singular and sometimes plural. 

Exercise 2. 

(a) In the following extracts, point out the personal pro- 
nouns, tell whether they are singular or plural, and why. 

(5) Point out the antecedents of the pronouns, when 
expressed. 

1. Under the church of Federal Street, 
Under the tread of its Sabbath feet, 
Walled about by its basement stones, 
Lie the marvelous preacher's bones. 
No saintly honors to them are shown, 
No sign nor miracle have they known ; 
But he who passes the ancient church 
Stops in the shade of its belfry porch, 
And ponders the wonderful life of him 
Who lies at rest in that charnel dim. 
Long shall the traveler strain his eye 
From the railroad car, as it passes by. 
And the vanishing town behind him search 
For the slender spire of the Whitefield Church. 

2. And thou, my song, T send thee forth, 

Where harsher songs of mine have flown ; 
Go, find a place at home and hearth 

Where'er thy singer's name is known ; 
Revive for him the kindly thought 
Of friends ; and they who love him not, 
Touched by some strain of thine, perchance may take 
The hand he proffers all, and thank him for thy sake. 



GENDER. 101 



LXXII. GENDER. 

From the following nouns, select (1) the names of males; 
(2) the names of females ; (3) names that may be applied 
to either males or females ; (4) names that must be applied 
to objects that are neither males nor females. 



girl 


poet 


son 


lad 


ship 


book 


field 


hen 


baron 


sheep 


child 


geese 


duck 


tailor 


swine 


father 


maid 


witch 


lioness 


editor 


mother 


horse 


doctor 


prophet 


heroine 



bachelor pasture poetess Caroline princess 

It is usual to divide nouns and pronouns into four kinds, 
or genders (gender signifies kind^ — masculine, feminine, 
neuter, and common. 

In the first class (masculine) are included all names of 
males; as, man^ hoy. In the second (feminine), are all 
names of females ; as, woman^ girl. In the third (neuter), 
are all names of objects that are neither male nor female ; 
as, rock^ house. In the fourth (common), are all names 
that will apply without change in form to either males or 
females ; as, animal^ sheep. 

This division of names into four genders is very conven- 
ient, because we have, in the pronouns, four distinct 
forms corresponding to the four classes mentioned. For 
example, 7ie is masculine ; sAe, feminine ; zY, neuter; they., 
common. 

Whenever a pronoun takes the place of a noun, its 
gender and number forms must correspond with the mean- 
ing of the noun. 

All animals have sex — some are male, and others female. 
Some nouns have certain forms which show whether they 
are the names of males or of females. Thus the noun lion 



102 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART 11. 



is of the masculine gender, while lioness is of the feminine 
gender; hei^o is masculine, and heroine is feminine. 

Gender ^ is a distinction of nouns and pronouns -with regard 
to sex. 



LXXIII. GENDER (continued). 
Exercise, 
(a) Copy the following masculine nouns, and after each 



write its corresponding feminine. 






boy 


earl lad 


male 


sir 


beau 


duke lord 


monk 


son 


buck 


drake hero 


papa 


tiger 


brother 


father king 


negro 


uncle 


bachelor 


doctor husband 


master 


youth 


bridegroom 


emperor gentleman 


nephew 


widower 



(6) Which nouns in the list above have gender termi- 
nations to denote the feminine ? 

(c) The feminines of the following nouns are somewhat 
irregular. See how many of them you can find. 



Joseph Paul 
Louis John 



Henry 
Goodman 



Jesse 
Auo-ustus 



Cecil 
Francis 



(cZ) Some nouns have certain words prefixed to desig- 
nate the sex of the individual; as, man-servant, she-bear. 
Make a list of five such nouns. 

1 This property of nouns is quite unimportant in grammar, because so few 
nouns in the language are changed in form for the purpose of distinguishing 
the sex of the individual. In our language, we use, for the most part, entirely 
different words to represent the male and the corresponding female; as, boy, 
girl; horse, mare. The French termination, es.s, which has displaced the older 
feminine terminations in a few nouns, is now gradually disappearing. Thus 
little use is now made of such words as doctress, janitress, etc., the masculine 
form being applied to either sex. Such words as songstress have double femi- 
nine terminations, the old English termination ster (estre), and the more 
modern French ess, 



GENDER OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 103 



LXXIV. GENDER OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns have the same gender as the nouns which they 
represent. Thus, he^ his, him, represent masculine nouns ; 
she, hers, her, represent feminine nouns ; it and its, neuter 
nouns ; and the^, theirs, etc., nouns of any gender. 

It and its may refer to a child or to a lower animal, when 
sex is not considered. 

Examples : The baby walks, though it is only eleven months old. 
The dog's bark is worse than its bite. 

Exercise I. 

(«) From the list of pronouns on page 35, point out 
those that always stand for names of males. 

(5) Point out those that always stand for names of 
females. 

(c) Point out those that stand for names of objects that 
are neither males nor females. 

(c?) Point out those that may stand for names of either 
males or females. 

Exercise 2. 

(a) In the following sentences, point out the personal 
pronouns, tell what nouns (antecedents) they represent, 
and the gender of the nouns. 

1. Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 
And waste its sweetness on the desert air. 

2. No man should be ashamed to own that he has been in the wrong. 

3. The dogs eat of the crumbs which fall from their masters' table. 

4. A man may beat the bush, and his friend may catch the bird. 

5. Great talkers are like broken pitchers : they hold nothing. 

6. Laziness travels so slowly that poverty soon overtakes it. 

7. Whom men wrong, they hate. 

8. Men heap up riches and know not who will enjoy them. 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II. 

Personification. 

Objects without life are frequently spoken of as human 
beings. Thus, Longfellow, speaking of a ship, says : — 

She starts! she moves I she seems to feel 
The thrill of life along her keel ! 

In these lines, the ship is spoken of as a person, and is 
said to be personified. In such cases, the pronoun must 
have the gender that is ascribed to its antecedent. 

Objects remarkable for size or power are usually per- 
sonified in the masculine gender ; those remarkable for 
beauty or grace, in the feminine. 

Its^ the possessive of zY, was not used until the time of 
Queen Elizabeth. Previously, his was the possessive of 
both he and it. In the Bible, there are many examples 
of this old use of his. 

Example: Put up again thy sword into his place. 

LXXV. PERSON. 

From the personal pronouns on page 35, make a list — 

(1) Of those that denote or include the name of the 
speaker, as, 2, we. Pronouns in this list are in the 
first person. 

(2) Of those that may be used in place of names of 
persons spoken to , as, thou., you. Pronouns in this list 
are in the second person. 

(3) Of those that may stand for the names of persons 
or things spoken of ; as, Ae, it. Pronouns in this list are 
in the third person. 

Person is a distinction of nouns and pronouns which shows 
whether they represent speakers, persons spoken to, or per- 
sons or things spoken of. 



PERSON. 105 

Nouns are usually in the third person, because they are 
almost always names of persons or things spoken of. 
Occasionally, expressions containing nouns in the first 
or second person are used : — 

J, Abraham Liyicoln^ President of the United States. 

Here Abraham Lincoln and Presideyit are in the first 
person. 

You^ William Henry., should endeavor to learn your lessons. 

William Henry in this sentence is in the second person. 

By comparing your three lists of pronouns, you will see 
that no inflection of the words in one list will make the 
words in another. Thus we find that pronouns are not 
inflected to denote person. 

Thou (plural ye, once in general use) has been displaced, 
except in the solemn style, by you. 

All pronouns in the first or second person, whether 
singular or plural, are used to designate males, females, 
or things personified. Plural pronouns of the third person 
may be used in place of nouns of any gender. 

We have found that, to denote number, most nouns are 
inflected; as, man, men; boy, boys; — that some of them 
are inflected to denote gender ; as, Jeiv, Jewess; lion, 
lioness. Moreover, all nouns are inflected to denote pos- 
session ; as, man, man^s ; men, men's. (See next lesson.) 

A noun may be used in the first, second, and third 
persons, without any change whatever in its form. 

Examples: I, Thomas (first person), am the culprit. 

Thomas (second person), you are the culprit. 
Thomas (third person) is the culprit. 

Neither nouns nor pronouns, therefore, are inflected to 
denote person. 



106 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART n. 



LXXVI. CASE. 



The -word case is commonly employed to indicate three rela- 
tions that a noun or pronoun may hold to other words in a 
sentence. 

These three relations are those of subject, object, and 
possessor. 

Nouns have but two case forms, the only change from 
the simplest form being to express ownership; as, man^ 
marCs; hoys^ hoys' . The relations of subject and object 
are sometimes shown by the position of the noun in the sen- 
tence ; the subject usually stands before its verb, and the 
object follows a transitive verb or preposition. 

Singular nouns are made to express ownership by the 
addition of an apostrophe and s ('s)j ^s, the hoy's hook,, 
James's flute. (But see page 110.) 

Plural nouns that end in s express ownership by the 
addition of the apostrophe only ; as, the ladies' hats. If 
the plural noun does not end in s, ownership is expressed 
in the same way as in singular nouns — that is, by adding 
's; as, men's hats^ the children's games. 

Number, gender, person, and case are often called proper- 
ties of nouns and pronouns. 







Exercise 1. 






Write the 


following 


nouns in the 


singular 


number, pos- 


sessive case. 










raen 


boy 


cat 


uncle 


dog 


child 


cow 


rabbit 


aunts 


birds 


Mary 


hens 


ladies 


foxes 


sister 


sheep 


oxen 


heroes 


father 


cousin 


mouse 


girls 


sailors 


mother 


women 


James 


horses 


brother 


painter 


teacher 


William 


rogues 


enemies 


nephew 


scholar 


negroes 


fishes 


soprano 


fairies 


monkey 



CASE. 



107 



Exercise 2. 
Write the following nouns in the plural number, pos- 
sessive case, and use them in sentences. 



boy 


ox 


aunt 


bird 


dog 


man 


cat 


uncles 


foxes 


hens 


cows 


sister 


cousin 


rogue 


hero 


lady 


father 


chicken 


mouse 


woman 


girl 


enemy 


brother 


sailor 


mother 


horse 


children 


nephew 


rabbit 


painter 



LXXVII. CASE (continued). 

A noun or a pronoun used as the subject of a verb is 
said to be in the nominative case. 

Life is what we make it. 

In this sentence, life is the subject of (s, and we is the 
subject of make. 

The noun or pronoun used as the object of a transitive 
verb or preposition, is said to be in the objective case. 

Washington commanded the army. 

In this sentence, army is called the object of the transi- 
tive verb commanded^ because it names the real object that 
received the commands. 

My father spoke to the teacher. 

Here teacher is called the object of the preposition to., 
because it names the object to which the action (speaking) 
was directed. 

We had heard tvhom he tvanted, and to whom he sent the 
message. 

In this sentence, the first ivhom is the object of the verb 
wanted^ and the second whom is the object of the prepo- 
sition to. 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II. 

The form (spelling) of a noun is the same whether used 
in the nominative or in the objective case, but the forms 
of the pronouns in the two cases are almost always differ- 
ent. In speaking of a man, we may use the pronouns he 
and him^ but he is always used as a subject (or a comple- 
ment of an intransitive verb), and him as an object. 

Example : He wrote to him and thanked him for his kindness. 

The pronoun who is used as a subject, and whom as an 
object. 

Example: I neither heard who went nor to whom the message was 
sent. 

A third relation is that of possession, and is known as 
the possessive case. In nouns, this is denoted by an apos- 
trophe and s ('s), or by an apostrophe alone ; but pronouns, 
except one^ other ^- and another^ never take an apostrophe to 
show possession, since their form sufficiently indicates the 
relation. 

Examples : Some one's umbrella is in the anteroom. 
The tree has shed its leaves. 

The subject and the noun complement (or pronoun 
complement) of an intransitive verb hold nearly the same 
relation to the verb, and these terms may frequently be 
inverted, with little or no change of meaning. 

Examples : Mr. Brown was the chairman of the meeting. 
The chairman of the meeting was Mr. Brown. 

Therefore, when a pronoun complement is used after an 
intransitive verb, care must be taken that it is in the same 
case as the subject. 

Mistakes can occur only in the use of pronouns. Why? 

Examples: It is I (not me). It will be he (not him). 
In what two cases may it be used ? you f her ? 



CASE. 109 

Can you name any other pronoun that has the same 
form in different cases ? 

Exercise I. 
From the following personal pronouns, select and use in 
sentences (a) those that may be used as subjects ; (5) those 
that may be used as complements ; ((?) those that may be 
used as objects. 

I us he her it they 

me you she thou him them 

Exercise 2. 

It was Martha and who blamed . 

It was Martha and I who blamed her. 

In the sentence above, /is correct, because it is the com- 
plement of the verb was. Her., the objective form of the 
pronoun she., is here the object of the transitive verb blamed. 



In the same way fill the blanks below with suitable 
pronouns, and explain their fitness. 

1 . It was , not . 

2. and met in Paris. 

3. Was it Jane and who met ? 

4. It was who named you and . 

5. To Ralph and belongs the credit. 

6. Was it I or that lost it? 

7. I know it was made for Mary and . 

8. Both and were wrong. 

9. I see that for and there is no excuse. 

10. I ask no favor of or . 

11. Did and meet them there? 

12. They spoke rudely to and . 

13. It was not . Was it ? 

14. Against and they bring no complaint. 

15. Will it be or that will win ? 

16. It may be either or . 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II. 



LXXVm. THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

We have already learned (page 106) that the possessive 
case of most singular nouns is expressed by the addition 
of an apostrophe and s ('s). 

A few singular nouns, like most nouns in the plural, 
add only the apostrophe to denote the possessive case. 

Example : Moses' sister was named Miriam. 

Pronounce distinctly Moses' sister, Moses's sister; 
Xerxes' army, Xerxes' s army ; Frances's share, Frances' 
share; conscience's sake, conscience' sake. 

The use of an s after the apostrophe adds a syllable and 
thus causes, in words similar to those given, a disagreeable 
succession of hissing sounds. It should be observed, how- 
ever, that, in forming the possessive singular of all such 
nouns, many good writers have shown a preference for 
using the s. 

Compound terms take the possessive sign at the end. 

Example: My brother-in-law's name is James. 

The last of two or more nouns implying common pos- 
session takes the sign of the possessive. 

Example : Metcalf and Bright's Language Lessons. 

If no common possession is implied, or if the nouns 
are joined by or or nor, each noun must take the sign of 
the possessive. 

Example: He accepted neither Grant's nor Sherman ^s proffer of aid. 

The meaning of the possessive case may frequently be 
expressed more elegantly by a phrase. 

Example : Washington's death — the death of Washington. 



THE POSSESSIVE CASE. HI 

The names of persons, lower animals, and personified 
objects are almost the only nouns that are inflected to 
denote possession. With other nouns it is more common 
to express possession by means of phrases. 

Examples: The top of the tree ; not, the tree's top. 

The length of the street; not, the street's length. 

Exercise. 
Use phrases instead of the following nouns in Italics. 

1. Dr. Holmes's writings. 

2. Page and Hawley's efforts. 

3. Benjamin Franklin's services. 

4. New England's sacrifices. 

5. The State's indebtedness. 

6. Arnold's treason. 

7. Washington' s inauguration. 

8. The Sixth Regiment's experience. 

9. The Lord's mercy endureth forever. 
10. It is not beauty I demand, 

A crystal brow, the moon's despair, 

Nor the snoiv's daughter, a white hand. 

Nor mermaid's yellow pride of hair. 

Although the preposition of is frequently used in place 
of the apostrophe and s, to express possession, still it 
sometimes happens that, to avoid ambiguity, both are 
used in the same sentence ; as, This sketch of my son's 
pleased me (preferably, my son's sketch^. The sentence. 
This sketch of my son, may have two meanings. What 
are they? 

The termination es marked the possessive (or genitive) 
case in the Anglo-Saxon language ; and the apostrophe 
indicates the omission of the e from that termination. 
The apostrophe as the sign of the possessive case was not 
in common use until late in the seventeenth century. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II. 



LXXIX. CASES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns have no inflection except for case ; but, unlike 
nouns, they have three case-forms ; thus, — 

Nominative Possessive Objective 
he his him 

Inflection of Personal Pronouns for Case, 
singular. 



person. 


Norn. 


Poss, 


Ohj. 


First 


I 


niy or mine 


me 


Second 


thou 


thy, thine 


thee 




he 


his 


him 


Third 


< she 


her or hers 


her 




it 


its 

PLURAL. 


it 


person. 


Nom. 


Poss. 


Ohj. 


First 


we 


our or ours 


us 


Secojid 


ye or you 


your or yours 


you 


Third 


they 


their or theirs 


then 



All there is of inflection in personal pronouns is shown 
in the foregoing table. Some of these pronouns are not 
inflected at all ; thus, / appears in no other form. But 
you^ your^ yours., are evidently different forms, or inflec- 
tions, of the same word. 

When two forms appear in the possessive, one is always 
used as an adjective before a noun ; as, This is my hook. 
The other includes in its meaning both the adjective and 
the noun ; as. This hook is mine (my hook^. 

In the Bible, and in poetry, 7nine and thine are often 
used before words beginning with a vowel or with h ; as, 
mine eye, thine hand. 



CASES OF APPOSITIVES. 113 



Exercise. 



(a) Write from memory, and arrange as in the table 
on page 112, all the personal pronouns of the first person ; 
of the second ; of the third. 

(6) In which person and number of the personal pro- 
nouns are there two nominative forms, and what are they ? 

(^) In what two instances have we only one possessive 
form? 

(d^ When there are two forms in the possessive, how is 
each used? 

(e) What caution is necessary in writing the pronouns 
ours^ yours^ hers, its, and theii^s ? 



LXXX. CASES OF APPOSITIVES. 

(Review Lesson XXIX., page 43.) 

An appositive must be in the same case as the noun 
or pronoun which it represents. 

Examples : The faithful farmer, he (not him) who, with an intelli- 
gent purpose, tills the soil, will surely win respect. 

His, my father's, honor was assailed. 

Honor thy father, him of all men to whom you are 
most indebted. 

Exception. — When one of two appositive nouns is in 
the possessive case, the other is usually written without 
the sign. 

Examples: Sister Sarah's house was burned last night. 

Sinbad the Sailor's wonderful story is familiar to every 
child. 

In such cases the two nouns may be considered as one 
name, rather than as appositives. 

MET. ENG, GRAM. 8 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II. 

Exercise. 

(^) Select the appositives in the following sentences, 
tell the case of each, and why it is in that case. 
(b~) Analyze the first two sentences. 

1. Professor Morse, the inventor of the electric telegraph, was born 

in Charlestown, Mass. 

2. This counsel was Washington's, — his who is justly styled the 

Father of his Country. 

3. Abraham Lincoln, he who in derision was called the rail-splitter, 

is second only to Washington, in the hearts of his countrymen. 

4. Excellent bread was bought at Winn the baker's. 

5. He gave one hundred dollars to his daughter, Elizabeth Child. 

6. He gave one hundred dollars to his daughter, Elizabeth's child. 

7. He gave one hundred dollars to his daughter Elizabeth's child. 

LXXXI. REVIEW. 

(Pirst Oral and then Written.) 

(1) What is a proper noun? a common noun? a collec- 
tive noun? Give an example of each. 

(2) What is meant by inflection ? Show all the inflec- 
tions of the nouns valley, sky^ piano^ woman, and use each 
inflected form in a sentence. 

(3) Name five different inflections of nouns to denote 
the plural, and illustrate each. (See pages 94-99.) 

(4) Illustrate three ways of denoting the feminine 
of nouns. Which are inflections ? 

(5) Inflect the following nouns to denote possession : 
father, fox, horse, Silas, James, men, boys, people, ladies. 

(6) Give rules for forming the plurals of nouns in y. 

(7) What two personal pronouns have the same form in 
the objective case as in the nominative? 

(8) Give the rule for the case of an appositive. Illus- 
trate. 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 115 

LXXXTI. CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

(Review Lesson XXIII. , page 38.) 

(1) 111 the following examples, which words in Italics are 
used as adjectives to express some quality ? (2) Which 
are used as adjectives but do not express quality? 
(3) Which express number ? (4) Which are derived from 
a proper noun? Name the noun. 

Examples: A sweet orange; yonder valley; three pupils; tliose 
houses; /ni'/m/i warfare; a ^en/Ze horse ; f^af pencil ; 
the first class ; American schools ; ivoolen i mittens. 

Adjectives that denote qualities of objects are called 
descriptive adjectives ; as, di green apple, a beautiful picture. 

An adjective that denotes number or quantity, or that 
merely points out an object without describing it, is called 
a definitive adjective"^ ; as, this man, yonder hill, the cup. 

A definitive adjective expressing number is called a 
numeral adjective ; as, two houses, 2^ few pupils, the^rs^ class. 

The definitives this and that take the plurals these and 
those respectively ; as, this man, these men — that man, those 
men. These are the only adjectives in the language that 
have both singular and plural forms. 

An adjective derived from a proper noun is called a 
proper adjective; as, American^ Indian^ European. Such 
an adjective must always begin with a capital. 

1 Adjectives ending in the unaccented syllable en, once very common, seem 
to be disappearing from the language. This is to be regretted, because such 
words add much to what may be termed the rhythm of the language. The 
unaccented syllable allows the voice to glide smoothly from one word to 
another. Compare the 3xpressions, a icooden box, a wood box ; Lenten ser- 
vices, Lent services ; the golden sky, the gold sky. 

2 When a noun is preceded by both a definitive and a descriptive adjective, 
the latter usually stands next to the noun ; as, two fine deer, these pretty 
flowers. 



116 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART H. 

Exercise. 

Point out the adjectives in the following sentences, tell 
for what purpose they are used, and classify them. 

1. We are never so happy or so anhappy as we suppose. 

2. A ground-glass shade over a gas-lamp does not bring more solace 

to our dazzled eyes than a dull but kindly person brings to our 
minds. 

3. Do you think a carpenter is bound to use the same plane but once 

to smooth a knotty board, or to hang up his hammer after it has 
driven its first nail ? 

4. An Italian philosopher had as his most valued motto, " Time is 

my estate." 

5. Lonely and lovely, a single star 
Lights the air with a dusky glimmer. 

6. Could angry Pallas, with revengeful spleen, 
The Grecian navy burn, and drown the men? 

7. Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul ! 

As the swift seasons roll ; 

Leave thy low-vaulted past ; 
Let each new temple, nobler than the last, 
Shut thee from heaven with a dome more vast, 

Till thou at length art free, 
Leaving thine outgrown shell by Life's unresting sea! 

LXXXIIL NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

Numeral adjectives are divided into two classes — cardi- 
nals and ordinals. 

The cardinals are the numerals used in counting ; as, one^ 
two^ three, etc. 

The ordinals are the numerals used to denote the order 
in which things stand in a series ; as,^rs^, second, third, etc. 

The ordinals, except first and second, are also used (as 
nouns) to denote fractional parts of anything; as, a, fourth, 
an eighth, seven thirty-seconds, etc. 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 117 

Nouns in the singular number are not commonly used 
with numerals above one. The following nouns, however, 
are exceptions : pair^ dozen, hundred, score, yoke, cannon, 
sail (^ships),foot and horse (^soldiers), perch, trout, and a few 
others. Such expressions, therefore, as two dozen, three 
hundred, four yoke, twenty sail, are correct. 

Compound adjectives like ten-foot, six-inch, etc., are cor- 
rectly used before singular as well as plural nouns. Thus, 
it is correct to say a five-gallon cask, a two-quart pail. 

Numeral adjectives denoting numbers between twenty 
and one hundred, not exact tens, are written with a hyphen. 
Thus, twenty-one, forty-eight, one hundred sixty-three. 

Exercise. 

Qi) Point out the adjectives in the following sentences, 
and name the class to which each belongs. 

(5) Analyze the fourth, fifth, and tenth sentences. 

1. These two keen-eyed boys live in yonder wretched hovel. 

2. Each of those ten huge furnaces is filled with iron ore. 

3. Twenty-three choice fruit-trees were destroyed by that sudden gust. 

4. A younger brother of this ruined man was an early victim to the 

same pernicious habit. 

5. Numerous rich specimens found ready sale at the first and second 

stands. 

6. Here were seven acres of the finest yellow cedar, three fourths of 

the trees being tall and straight. 

7. Every little incident of that joyous day is remembered. 

8. Boston Common, one of the most beautiful parks of the city, 

contains forty-eight acres. 

9. The army consisted of three thousand foot and a thousand horse. 

10. Perkins, an illustrious American inventor, substituted steel for 

copper in engraving bank-notes. 

11. John Quincy Adams was the sixth president of the United States. 

12. But half of our heavy task was done. 

13. Every seventh year was held sacred by the Jewish people. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II. 



LXXXIV. ADJECTIVES {continued). 

There are three ways in which an adjective may be 
joined with a noun or pronoun to describe or modify it. 

(1) It may be placed directly before the noun which it 
modifies. 

Examples: The savage beast. The studious pupil. Running- 
water. 

(2) It may be used as the complement of an incomplete 
intransitive verb. 

Examples: Aristides was just. Socrates became unpopular. It 
tastes sweet. 

(3) Occasionally it follows the noun. 

Example: He was a soldier, brave and true. 

Adjective modifiers frequently take the form of phrases 
or clauses. The following sentences, though different in 
form, have the same meaning. 

Socrates was a wise man. 
Socrates was a man of wisdom. 
Socrates was a man lolio was wise. 

In the first sentence, the noun man is modified by the 
adjective wise ; in the second, by the adjective phrase of 
ivisdom ; in the third, by the adjective clause who was wise. 

Nouns and pronouns in the possessive case are used as 
adjectives, and may be called adjective modifiers. 

In my Father^ s house are many mansio7is. 

In this sentence, the noun house is modified by the noun 
Father's in the possessive case, and the noun Father s is 
modified by the pronoun my in the possessive case. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 119 

Exercise. 

(«) In each of the following sentences, point out the 
entire subject and the entire predicate. 

(6) Point out the phrases and clauses, tell what kind 
they are, and what they modify. 

(c) Name all the nouns, and classify them. 

(d) Name all the adjectives, classify them, and tell 
what they modify. 

(e) Point out the personal pronouns, and tell the 
person, number, and case of each one. 

1. Rip Van Winkle was one of those happy mortals who take the 

world easy. 

2. He was a great favorite among all the good wives of the village. 

3. He assisted at the sports of the children, made their playthings, 

and told [to] them long stories of ghosts, witches, and Indians. 

4. He said that his farm was the most pestilent little piece of ground 

in the whole country. 

5. A tart temper never mellows with age, and a sharp tongue is the 

only edged tool that grows sharper with constant use. 



LXXXV. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

Many descriptive adjectives are inflected, as in the sen- 
tences below, to express different degrees of the same 
quality. When thus inflected a comparison is made be- 
tween two or more objects having a common quality. 

Examples : — 

The apple in my hand is sweet. 

The apples in the basket are sweeter than the one in my hand. 

The apple on the table is the sweetest of all. 

The inflection of adjectives to denote degrees of quality 
or quantity is called comparison. 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II. 

The three forms of an adjective are called respectively 
the positive, the comparative, and the superlative degrees 
of comparison ; as, positive sweety comparative sweeter^ 
superlative siveetest. 

The positive is the simple or root form of the adjective, 
and is used in naming the quality of one or more objects. 

Example : The road is rough . 

The comparative is made by adding er to the root, and 
is used in making a comparison between two objects or sets 
of objects. 

Example : This road is rougher than that. 

The superlative is made by adding est to the root, and is 
used in comparing three or more objects or sets of objects. 

Example : Tliis is the roughest road of all. 

A comparison is sometimes made between two qualities 
existing in the same object. 

Example: Youth is often more beautiful than wise. 

Certain qualities that cannot exist in different degrees 
are sometimes compared when not taken in their full sense. 

Examples : This road is straighter than the other. 

The treasury is fuller than it was last month. 

When an adjective in the comparative degree is used 
with than, the thing compared must be excluded from the 
things with which it is compared. 

Example: Thomas is taller than any other boy in the class. 

When an adjective in the superlative degree is used, the 
object compared must always be included with the things 
with which it is compared. 

Examples : Thomas is the tallest boy in the class ; or 
Thomas is the tallest of all the boys. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 121 

Exercise. 

Comparison. 

positive. comparative. superlative. 

happy^ happier^ happiest. 



In like manner, compare the adjectives below. 

high small sure sour cold slow 

low light true tall hot weak 

large heavy sweet short fast strong 

LXXXVI. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES {continued). 

The adjectives that are compared by adding er and est 
to the root consist, principally, of those having but one 
syllable. The terminations er and est commonly add a 
syllable to the word to which they are attached; conse- 
quently, they are likely to increase the difficulty of pro- 
nunciation. For this reason, doubtless, the inflection of 
adjectives for the purpose of comparison has been con- 
fined, chiefly, to words of one or two syllables. 

Most adjectives of two syllables, and nearly all of more 
than two, are compared by means of the adverbs more and 
most., less and least; as, the most beautiful., the least 
desirable. 

The following rules for the comparison of adjectives, 
though not very definite, are as exact as the facts will 
warrant, and may be found convenient for use. 

(1) Adjectives of one syllable — also those of two sylla- 
bles if they end in le or y, or if they are accented on the 
second syllable — are usually compared by adding er or 
est to the root form. 

Examples : Rich, richer, richest ; able, abler, ablest ; pretty, prettier, 
prettiest; polite, politer, politest. 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART 11. 

(2) Adjectives of three or more syllables are compared 
by means of the adverbs more and most^ less and least. 
These are used before the root form. 

Examples: Fragrant, more fragrant, most fragrant. 
Beautiful, less beautiful, least beautiful. 
Delightful, more delightful, most delightful. 

(3) Adjectives of two syllables sometimes express com- 
parison by an inflection, as in (1), sometimes b}^ means 
of the adverbs more and most, less and least, as in (2), 
and occasionally in both ways. 

Examples: Complete, completer, completest. 

Complete, more complete, most complete. 
Divine, diviner, divinest. 
Divine, more divine, most divine. 

If both forms of the comparative or of the superlative 
are to be used in the same sentence, the inflected form 
should precede the other. 

Example : Mr. Elwood's appeal was briefer and more impressive ; 
not, . . . more impressive and briefer. 

Exercise. 

(a) Write the comparison of the adjectives in the fol- 
lowing list. 

(5) Use in sentences the comparatives of the first three 
adjectives in the list. 

(^) Use in sentences the superlatives of the last three 
adjectives in the list. 



able 


robust 


cunning 


polite 


cheerful 


honest 


unkind 


tender 


sincere 


lovely 


manly 


angry 


discreet 


mellow 


deliberate 


pleasant 


fearless 


particular 


frightful 


grateful 


worldly 


probable 


complete 


marshy 


grotesque 


precise 


extravagant 


narrow 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 123 



LXXXVII. IRREGULAR COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

There are a few adjectives in the language that have no 
regular form of comparison. They are, chiefly, words in 
very common use, and should be carefully learned. 

Table of Adjectives Compaked Irregularly. 



POSITIVE. 


COMPAR. 


SUPERL. 


POSITIVE. 


COMPAR. 


SUPERL. 


bad 






late 


1 later 


latest 


evil 


worse 


worst 


I latter 


last 


ill 






little 


less 


least 


far 


farther 


farthest 


many 1 






fore 

(forth) 
good ~ 


former 
further 
better 


f foremost 
1 first 
furthest 

best 


much J 
near 

old 


more 

nearer 

J older 
1 elder 


most 

r nearest 

1 next 

oldest 

eldest 



The suffix most aids in forming other superlatives; as, 
furthermost^ inmost, innermost, topmost, uppermost, etc. 

The forms further, furthest (derived from the adverb 
forth) are hardly distinguished in use from farther, far- 
thest. Farther is commonly used to indicate distance; 
further, to indicate addition. 

Examples: We have seen that the ant is busy; further, she is 
skillful. Success seemed farther off than at first. 

Custom allows the use of lesser for less in a few special 
instances ; as, lesser Asia, the lesser light. 

Since many denotes number and much denotes quantity, 
more, the comparative of both adjectives, may modify either 
a singular or a plural noun. Hence, both more is wanted 
and more are ivanted, may be correct. 

Former and latter refer chiefly to things mentioned just 
before. Yet we read of former days and former times, and 
of the former and the latter rain. 



124 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART 11. 



LXXXVIII. COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

Adverbs are compared like adjectives. A few add the 
suffixes er and e^t ; as, 8oon^ sooner^ soonest. Most of them, 
however, are compared by means of more and most^ less 
and least ; as, rapidly^ more rapidly^ most rapidly ; bravely^ 
less bravely^ least bravely. 

Many adverbs do not admit of comparison. Such are 
here, yonder, noiu, then, thus, why, besides, very, almost, etc. 

The list below contains the adverbs that are either 
irregular or defective in comparison. 



Table of Adverbs Compared Irregularly, 



POSITIVE. 


COMPAR. 


SUPERL. 


POSITIVE. 


COMPAR. 


SUPERL. 


far 


farther 


farthest 


much 


more 


most 


forth 
ill 


further 
worse 


furthest 
worst 


near 


nearer 


f nearest 
1 or next 


late 


later 


f latest 
\ or last 


(rathe) 1 
well 


rather 
better 


best 


little 


less 


least 









Exercise. 
(6?) Compare the following adverbs. 



eagerly 


early 


often 


surely 


merrily 


directly 


fully 


especially 


seldom 


sweetly 


nearly 


smoothly 


comfortably 


happily 


frequently 


extravagantly 



(^) Copy the following adverbs, and then, from memory, 
arrange properly their three degrees of comparison. 



most 


far 


late 


ill 


best 


forth 


less 


near 


rather 


next 



1 Rathe or rath, meaninj:: early, is very rare in modern English, but it is 
found in older writings ; as, Bi'itig the rathe primrose that forsaken dies. I 
schalle come home, and that rather (earlier) than some men loolde. 



VERBS, PRESENT AND PAST TENSES. 125 

LXXXIX. VERBS, PRESENT AND PAST TENSES. 

(Review Lessons XXX.-XXXII., pages 45-47.) 

There are three natural divisions of time — present, 
past, and future. In sentences, these divisions of time are 
usually indicated by the forms of the verbs or verb-phrases. 

Tenses are forms of verbs or verb-phrases which indicate 
the time to which the action or state is referred. 

The tenses are named present, past, or future, according 
as they express present, past, or future time. These are 
called the three primary tenses. 

Exercise. 
Forms of the Verb. 

/ ivinte. You ivrite. He twites. We ivrite. You ivrite. 
They ivrite. The hoy writes. 



(a) In like manner, use the following words in succes- 
sion to fill the blanks below. 

I, you, he, we, they, the boy. 



write. 


speak. 


sleep. 


fall. 


go. 


swim. 


know. 


grow. 


see. 


spin. 


begin. 


drive. 



What different forms of each verb have you used in this 
exercise ? 

Which subjects require the verb to end in s ? In what 
person and number is each subject? 

What other personal pronouns, used as subjects, would 
require the verb to end in s ? 

Is present or past time expressed by these verbs ? 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II. 

(5) Fill the blanks below with the same subjects as 
ill (^). 

wrote. spoke. slept. fell. 

went. swam. knew. grew. 

saw. spun. began. drove. 

How many forms of each verb have you used? 

Is present or past time expressed by these verbs ? 

(c) Change the following sentences so that the verbs 
will express past time, and note the changes made in the 
forms (spelling) of the verbs. 

I drive. You forget. He draws. 

The boy drinks. She swims. They sit. 

We sing. The dog runs. They tear. 

I take. It shrinks. The horse bites. 

You study. He loses. ' She weeps. 



XC. VERBS, PRESENT AND PAST TENSES (continued). 

We found in the last lesson that certain verbs have 
three forms which are used to assert something either in 
present or past time. These are the only inflections that 
verbs have to indicate time. 

Exercise I. 

PRESENT. PAST. 

(1) W7^ite (2) writes (3) wrote 



Arrange in the same way the forms in the list below. 

run paint sleep study see 

fall slide take know fly 

row speak weave freeze grow 

strike throw catch wear bite 



VERBS, PRESENT AND PAST TENSES. 127 

The first form is called the root of the verb, because 
the inflected forms grow out of it. This form and the 
form that ends in s are used to express present or indefinite 
time. 

Examples : You stand in my way. 

The carriage stands at my door. 
The sun rises in the east. 

The third form indicates past time. 

Example : I wrote a letter (last week). 

Exercise 2. 

PRESENT. ^ PAST. 

/ write the letter. I ivrote the letter. 



(a) In the following exercise, rewrite the sentences, 
using the past tense ^ of each verb. 

(5) Analyze the second, eleventh, and fifteenth sentences. 

1. The wind blows the curtain. 

2. I choose a seat by the window. 

3. The blast drives the fallen leaves. 

4. The sun shines upon the placid lake. 

5. The lad shrinks from climbing the spire. 

6. We see the rapid growth of cities. 

7. The bitter blast freezes the flowers. 

8. The rich corn grows on the meadows. 

9. From the north comes a wintry blast. 

10. The bellowing thunder shakes earth and sky. 

11. Our train speeds from city to city. 

12. The ambitious strive for fame. 

13. We tread our native hills again. 

14. They tear the old flag from its staff. 
1.5. The enemy throws barriers in the way. 

1 If in doubt about the past form of any verb, refer to pages 140-145. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II. 



XCI. THE PRESENT TENSE, TIME INDEFINITE. 

It may be well for us to study more closely the root of 
the verb, and the form in s, taking for example the verbs 
move and write. 

The sentence, She moves gracefully^ does not necessarily 
mean that she is actually moving now, but that when she 
moves the act is graceful. 

So also when I say, You write heautifully^ I may mean, 
not that you are writing noiv^ but that whenever you write, 
the writing is beautiful. 

If I wish to assert that the writing is going on notv^ I am 
more likely to say. You are W7'itiii,g heaiitifully } 

The root of a verb and the form in s are sometimes used 
to express past time. 

Example : Csesar describes clearly the situation of his camp. 

This is called the historical present. 

Exercise. 

(a) In the following sentences, which verbs express 
indefinite time? 

Q)) Rewrite the sentences so that they will express no 
other than present time. If necessary, use modifying 
words. 

(c) Rewrite the sentences so that they will express past 
time. 

1. We are paring apples. 

2. The waves dash against the rocks. 

3. The sun sets behind the hills. 

4. My father uses a gold pen. 

5. Old Dobbin feeds on the hillside. 

1 Even such expressions as You are ivriting beautifully are not absolutely 
definite, and we often find it necessary to add qualifying words to make 
tliem so. 



'Vni: FUTURE TENSE. 129 

C. Tlie schoolhoys gather on the ice. 

7. The President is receiving the foreign ministers. 

8. Wolves howl and make night hideous. 

9. Rain falls on the grave of our loved one. 

10. Towser lies in the sun and sleeps. 

11. Dogs worry the sheep. 

12. My uncle strains his ear to catch the notes of my harp. 

13. Hearts respond to kindred hearts. 

14. A high purpose keeps us happy. 

15. Chemists turn scrap iron into ink. 

16. I linger on the shore. 

17. The lights twinkle from the rocks. 



XCII. THE FUTURE TENSE. 

The root and the -s form of the verb, as we have seen, 
express present or indefinite time;^ as, Iwnte^ he talks. 

We have also seen that past time is expressed by an 
inflection of the root; as, I wrote, I talked. 

We commonly express future time by using shall or ^vill 
with the root ; as, I shall write, you will ivrite, I shall talk, 
he will talk. 

If there had been no difference in meaning between 
shall and ivill, doubtless one of these words would long 
since have disappeared from the language .^ 

In declarative sentences, shall in the first person and 
loill in the second and third, denote futurity : they denote 
what is likely to happen ; as, I shall write, you will write, 
he will write. These three sentences merely imply that 
the writing will be done at some future time. 

1 The root of the verb and the form iu s are also somethnes used to express 
future time ; as, I go to Neio York to-morroio. My friend meets me there the 
next day. 

2 It is very important to preserve the distinction between shall and will. 
Many foreigners, and even natives of the United States, use will where they 
should use shall. Shall is seldom misused. 

MET. ENG. GRAM. — 9 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II. 

On the other hand, will in the first person and shall in 
the second and third, in declarative sentences, denote not 
only future time, but present determination. Thus, I will 
write expresses a determination to write ; you shall write, 
he shall write, imply a determination to require the writ- 
ing to be done. 

In asking questions, shall (never will) is used with the 
subject I or we. With other subjects, the same auxiliary 
(whether shall or will) is used that is expected in the 
answer. Thus, Shall you tahe the train at four o"" clock ? (/ 
shall) ; Will you call on me at three? (^I will.) 

Exercise. 
(a) Copy the first seven sentences below, and fill the 
blanks with shall or will to express the speaker's determi- 
nation or promise to bring about the act named. 

1. My son take my answer to you to-morrow. 

2. Yes, my son, your request be granted. 

3. I myself see that your note is mailed. 

4. We - — - grant you an audience soon. 

5. The umbrella be returned this evening. 

6. You have as many coppers as you please, 

7. I give you minute directions. 

(h) Copy the following sentences, and fill the blanks 
with either shall or will, so as to express a probable future 
event, but with no promise or pledge. 

1. We have rain very soon. 

2. By what express I send the books ? 

3. I think we have letters from Paris to-day. 

4. We have to go early for tickets. 

5. Mr. S. live but a few weeks. 

6. I hear of his death before I return. 

7. We regret losing our good neighbor. 

. 8. You hear from the family daily. 

9. When we meet again ? 



PARTICIPLES, OR VERBAL ADJECTIVES. 131 



XCni. PARTICIPLES, OR VERBAL ADJECTIVES. 

Two forms derived from verbs are called participles. 
This name is given them because they partake of the 
nature of the verb and of the adjective. Hence they are 
also called verbal adjectives. 

One of these participles is made by annexing ing to the 
root of the verb ; as, moYing, readm^, writm^, speakzn^. 

The regiment, moving the batter^/ to the hill, renews the 
engagement. 

Here moving modifies regiment like an adjective, and, 
like a verb, takes the object, battery. 

The regiment is driving the enemy before it. 

In this sentence the participle driving follows the verb, 
and modifies the subject regiment like a predicate adjec- 
tive. As a verb, it takes the object enemy. 

The participle in ing is called an imperfect participle 
because it represents an action or state as incomplete, or 
continuing. When combined with some form of be, it 
makes what is called the progressive form of the verb from 
which it is derived ; as, is moving, am going, was driving, 
ivill be writing. 

Another participle, called the perfect participle, is formed 
from many verbs by adding ed to the root; as, move, 
moved; deny, denied; betray, betrayed. From certain 
other verbs this participle is formed irregularly ; as, 
spoken from the verb speak, gone from go, bred from 
breed. These irregular forms may be learned from the 
tables of irregular verbs, pages 140-145. 

Like the participle in ing, the perfect participle is used 
as a verbal adjective, but it represents the action as com- 



132 E^^GLTSH GRAMMAR, PART IT. 

})leted ; hence the name perfect. When combined with 
some form of he^ it makes what is called the passive form 
of the verb from which it is derived. 

Examples : The merchant, deceived by his partner, failed. 
The merchant was deceived by his partner. 

Being, having, and having been, combined with some 
other participle, form compound participles ; as, being broken, 
having broken, having been broken. 

Exercise. 

PRESENT. PAST. PARTICIPLES. 

fall falls fell falling fallen 



(a) Arrange all the forms of each of the following 
verbs as in the model above. 

see know paint row study throw 

grow sleep speak strike take weave 

(5) Point out the participles in the following sen- 
tences ; tell what kind each is ; also tell how they resemble 
verbs, and how adjectives. 

((?) Analyze the second, third, and sixth sentences. 

1. My little family were gathered round a charming fire, telling 

stories of the past and laying schemes for the future. 

2. The great tree, swaying fearfully, soon yielded to the blast. 

3. The camels, loaded with rich goods, picked their way slowly over 

the desert. 

4. Just before midnight, we saw the moon rising above the mountains. 

5. When we awoke, the sun was seen far above the horizon. 

6. When we visited our trap, we found a poor hedgehog caught by 

his forepaw. 

7. A penny given willingly is of greater value than a pound given 

grudgingly. 

8. The penny was given willingly, but the pound grudgingly. 

9. The spider, spinning his web, was an inspiration to Bruce. 



INFINITIVES, OR VERBAL NOUNS. 133 



XCIV. INFINITIVES, OR VERBAL NOUNS. 

We found in the preceding lesson tliat verbs have two 
forms, called participles, or verbal adjectives. 

One of these forms, namely, the form ending in hig^ is 
also used as a verbal noun; that is, it partakes of the 
nature of a verb and of a noun. 

Reading maketh a full mart, and writiiig an exact man, 

Reading and luriting in this example have the noun 
nature because they are used as subjects, and they have 
the verb nature because they will take the modifiers of 
verbs ; as, Reading good hooks maketh a full man^ and 
writing carefully maketh an exact man. 

I do not enjoy writing letters. 

Here writing shows its noun nature by its use as the 
object of the verb do enjoy., and its verb nature by taking 
the object letters. 

Its noun nature may also be shown by the fact that it 
will take before it a noun or pronoun in the possessive 
case ; as, I do not like his writing so carelessly. 

True worth is in being., not seeming. 

Being and seeming in this sentence are verbal nouns, 
objects of the preposition in. 

Rest is not quitting the busy career. 

Here quitting is a predicate noun after the verb is. It 
shows its verbal nature by taking the object career. 

The verbal noun formed by adding ing to the root of 
the verb is often called an infinitive in ing. 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II. 

Exercise. 

(a) Point out the verbal nouns in the following exer- 
cise and tell why they should be so classed. 
(5) Analyze the first three sentences. 

1. You will greatly oblige me by sending those books. 

2. Reading history is a daily exercise in our school. 

3. The teacher urges our writing a short composition every day. 

4. We were much interested in studying the history of Greece. 

5. He was badly hurt in consequence of meddling with the machinery. 

6. You will gain much by rising early in the morning. 

7. The boys disturbed the sick man by blowing horns and firing 

cannon. 

8. The young man gained his promotion by attending to his duties 

with strict conscientiousness. 

9. I insist on traveling by boat. 

10. Seeing is believing. 

11. On examining the book, I became convinced of its trashy character. 

12. By respecting ourselves, we gain the respect of others. 



XCV. INFINITIVES, OR VERBAL NOUNS {continued). 

Phrases formed by combining the preposition to with the 
root of a verb may be used as verbal nouns. 

To sing songs is a pleasant exercise. 

Here to sing, as a noun, is the subject of the sentence, 
and, as a verb, it takes the object songs. 

The pupil wishes to study his lesson. 

In this sentence, the phrase to study, as a noun, is the 
object of the verb wishes, and, as a verb, it takes the object 
lesson. 

Such phrases are usually called infinitive phrases, and 
they may be used as nouns, or adjectives, or adverbs. 



INFINITIVES, OR VERBAL NOUNS. 135 

The following are examples of verbal noun phrases. 

Examples : To advance is impossible. (Subject.) 
The boy dislikes ^0 5^Mcfy. (Object.) 
The man seems to move. (Complement.) 
It is my wish to go. (Appositive.) 

Such phrases will take the modifiers of verbs. 

Examples: To advance rapidly is impossible. (Adverb.) 

The boy dislikes to study his lessons. (Object.) 
The pupil is to graduate young. (Adjective.) 

Since these verb forms may be used as nouns, and since 
they are derived from, and will take the modifiers of, 
verbs, they are called verbal nouns. 

Thus there are two verbal nouns — one ending in ing 
(see preceding lesson), and the other consisting of the 
root of the verb, usually preceded by the preposition to. 
The former, as we have seen, is called the infinitive in 
ing. The latter may be called the root infinitive ; though 
it is also called the infinitive, or, perhaps more frequently, 
an infinitive phrase. 

The root infinitive when used as a noun, often has the 
same meaning as the infinitive in ing derived from the 
same verb, and the two are grammatical equivalents. 

Examples : To sing is pleasant = Singing is pleasant. 

The teacher urged us to study the lessons = The teacher 

urged our studying the lessons. 
He is about to go = He is about going. 

There are a few prepositions that the root infinitive will 
follow. 

Examples: He is willing to do anything hut (to) work. 
They do nothing except (to) complain. 
He is ahout to join the class. 



136 ENGLISH GKA.ALMAR, PAIIT 11. 

Exercise. 
(a) Point out the verbal nouns in the following sen- 
tences, and show why they are properly so called. 

1. I wished to enter college, and hoped to receive aid from my uncle. 
'J. To retreat was ditftcult, to advance, impossible. 

0. The pupil wished to study geometry and algebra. 

4. To see her is to love her. 

5. Learn to labor and to wait. 

6. It is your duty to obey the rules. 

7. He consents to anything except surrendering his convictions. 

8. The Cambria is to sail to-morrow. 

(6) Substitute, in the sentences below, grammatical 
equivalents for the words in Italics. 

1. Flee from the wrath to come. 

2. He began to rebuke them. 

3. He was about driving to town. 

4. The boat was about being driven upon the rocks. 

5. They had reason to complain. 

6. This would allow his going. 



XCVI. VERBAL NOUNS AND VERBAL ADJECTIVES 
CONTRASTED. 

The verbal noun in ing must not be confounded with 
the verbal adjective (or imperfect participle) in iyig. They 
are exactly alike in form, but one is used as a noun and 
the other as an adjective. 

Examples : — 
Playing ball is excellent exercise. (Verbal noun, subject of the verb.) 
He was expert at playing ball. (Verbal noun, object of at.) 
The boy playing ball is only fifteen years old. (Verbal adjective, or 

imperfect participle, modifying the noun boy.) 
The boy is playing ball. (Predicate adjective, or imperfect participle, 

complement of the verb is; combined with the verb is, it makes 

the progressive form of the verb play.) 



VERBAL NOUNS AND VERBAL ADJECTIVES. 137 

Exercise. 

(rt) In the following sentences, point out the verbal 
nouns and the verbal adjectives in iny^ and give reasons 
for the classiiication. 

(Jb) .Analyze the sentences, and parse such words as the 
teacliei- may designate. 

1. The great events then passing before him were unheeded. 

2. I have found a plant answering to the description, 
o. The clerk has finished counting the money. 

4. The star now blazing in the east is Sirius. 



Cyrus issued a decree authorizing the Jews' return, 



6. Then followed an empire representing a higher social life. 



7. Night was made hideous by the howling of wolves. 

8. Here we see a state crumbling and a civilization verging towards 

decay. 

9. A clause limiting a noun is an adjective element. 

10. Humming all day his breezy note of joy, the bee makes harbor at 

our perfumed door. 

11. Whizzing past, sang the cruel shaft of the Indian warrior. 

V2. The man doing most for a cause is not often the man voicing his 
own praises. 

13. Linnaeus knelt beside the mountain gorses, thanking God for 

their beauty. 

14. Have you heard the message the brooklets are bringing? 

15. The angry billows were beating against the ship. 

16. I was lulled by the murmuring of the waters. 

17. He spoke of the two centuries succeeding the fall of Jerusalem. 

18. The heroism of the barbarian was a devouring flame, ever black- 

ening, if not consuming, every other good quality. 

19. The opposing armies were occupied with the burning of their 

dead. 

20. Even if the sculptor has borrowed the grouping from the poet, 

we still consider him deserving of great praise. 

21. The artist has excelled in animating the rigid stone with living 

forms, and inserting living senses within the breathing marble. 

22. In insisting upon our rights, we are sometimes losing the sense 

of duty. 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II. 

XCVn. VERBS, REGULAR AND IRREGULAR. 

Exercise. 

(1) do^ (2) does^ (3) did^ (4) doing^ (5) done. 

These are the five most common forms of the verb do. 



In the same way, arrange the forms of the following 

verbs. 

blow, come, fly, give, load, receive, rise, row, save. 

By examining your table of verb forms, you will see that 
some verbs have five different forms, while others have but 
four. These five forms are named as follows : — 

(1) The infinitive, or root form — the form that may 
be preceded by to. 

(2) The -s form. 

(3) The past tense. 

(4) The imperfect (or present) participle. 

(5) The perfect (or past) participle. 

The perfect participle may always be combined with 
have to form a verb-phrase ; as, have done^ have flown^ 
have given. 

In verbs that have but four forms, the past tense and 
the perfect participle are alike. 

Example: (1) move, (2) moves, (3) moved, (4) moving, (5) moved. 

A verb whose past tense and perfect participle are formed 
by the addition of d or ed to the root is called a regular verb ; 
as, roiv^ roived ; love., loved. All other verbs are classed as 
irregular.^ 

1 Most if not all irregular verbs have come down to us from the Anglo-Saxon. 
They are generally short words, and are much used. All new verbs, and 
nearly all that have come into the language from other sources than the 
Anglo-Saxon are regular. 



VERBS, REGULAR AND IRREGULAR. 139 

From the root of a regular verb all the other forms may 
easily be made. For example, talk is the root form of a 
regular verb. By adding s we have the second form, 
talks ; by adding ed we have the third and the fifth form, 
talked ; by adding ing we have the fourth form, talking. 

In naming the forms of a verb, two are usually omitted — 
the form in s and the form in ing. The first is always 
made by adding the termination s or es to the root, and the 
second by adding ing; as, loves., lov-ing ; go-es^ go-ing ; 
read-s^ read-ing.^ 

Three forms, namely, the root, the past tense, and the 
perfect participle, are called the principal parts of the 
verb. 

Exercise. 

(1) Tell which verbs in the following sentences are 
regular and which irregular, and why; also give their 
(three) principal parts. 

(2) Rewrite the sentences, changing the tense of each 
verb from the present to the past, or the reverse. 

1. The wind sways the trees. 

2. In his hand he holds a ballot. 

3. The sun withdraws his rays. 

4. Clouds of smoke fill the air. 

5. James strove for excellence. 

6. Mrs. Gray chose the smaller volume. 

7. His mates gave him a good name. 

8. The plowboy drove his team afield. 

9. The youth manages his horses well. 

10. These grapes grew by the Hudson. 

11. My mother requests my dismissal. 

12. The sergeant told us his adventure. 

13. Father reads aloud each evening. 

1 The rules for spelling sometimes require the dropping of the final e or 
the doubling of the final consonant before adding the letters that form the 
inflection; as, love, loving; begin, beginning. 



140 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II. 



XCVIII. TABLES OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Table I. contains the principal parts of all irregular 
verbs whose past tense and perfect participle are unlike. 

Most errors in the use of irregular verbs occur with those 
in Table I. Let it be remembered that the past tense must 
not be used with have Qias^ had). Nothing is more uncouth 
in speech than expressions like have drove and has went. 
Equally disagreeable is the use of the perfect participle 
for the past tense ; as, she seen, they done. 



Table I. 



PRESENT TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


PERF. PART. 


arise 




arose 


arisen 


be or am 


was 


been 


bear, h 


•ing forth 


bore 


born,i borne 


bear, carry 


bore 


borne 


beat 




beat 


beaten, beat 


begin 




began 


begun 


bid 




bade, bid 


bidden, bid 


bite 




bit 


bitten, bit 


blow 




blew 


blown 


break 




broke 


broken 


chide 




chid 


chidden, chid 


choose 




chose 


chosen 


cleave, 


split 


cleft, clove (clave)^ 


cleft, cleaved, cloven 


come 




came 


come 


do 




did 


done 


draw 




drew 


drawn 


drink 




drank 


drunk, drunken 


drive 




drove 


driven 


eat 




ate (eat) 


eaten (eat) 


fall 




fell 


fallen 



1 Born is used only in the passive voice. 

2 The words in parentheses in this and the following tables represent forms 
which, though at one time common, are now seldom used. 



TABLES OF fRREGULAH VERBS. 



141 



PRESKNT TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


PERF. PAKT. 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


give 


gave 


given 


go 


went 


gone 


grow 


grew 


grown 


hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


know 


knew 


known 


lie, recline 


lay 


lain 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


ring 


rang, rung 


rung 


rise 


rose 


risen 


run 


ran 


run 


see 


saw 


seen 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


shrink 


shrank, shrunk 


shrunk, shrunken 


sing 


sung, sang 


sung 


sink 


sunk, sank 


sunk 


slay- 


slew 


slain 


slide 


slid 


slidden, slid 


smite 


smote 


smitten 


speak 


spoke (spake) 


spoken 


spring 


sprang, sprung- 


sprung 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


stride 


strode 


stridden 


strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


strive 


strove 


striven 


swear 


swore (sware) 


sworn 


swim 


swam, swum 


swum 


take 


took 


taken 


tear 


tore 


torn 


throw 


threw 


thrown 


tread 


trod 


trodden, trod 


wear 


wore 


worn 


weave 


wove 


woven 


write 


wrote 


written 



142 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART 11. 



Table II. 



This table contains the principal parts of all irregular 
verbs whose past tense and perfect participle are alike. 



RESENT 


PAST TENSE 


PRESENT 


PAST TENSE 


TENSE. 


AND PERF. PART. 


TENSE. 


AND PERF. PART. 


abide 


abode 


lead 


led 


behold 


beheld 


leave 


left 


beseech 


besought 


lend 


lent 


bind 


bound 


let 


let 


bleed 


. bled 


lose 


lost 


breed 


bred 


make 


made 


bring 


brought 


mean 


meant 


build 


built 


meet 


met 


burst 


burst 


pay 


paid 


buy 


bought 


put 


put 


cast 


cast 


read 


read 


catch 


caught 


rend 


rent 


cling 


clung 


say 


said 


cost 


cost 


seek 


sought 


creep 


crept 


sell 


sold 


cut 


cut 


send 


sent 


deal 


dealt 


set 


set 


feed 


fed 


shed 


shed 


feel 


felt 


shoe 


shod 


fight 


fought 


shoot . 


shot 


find 


found 


shut 


shut 


flee 


fled 


sit 


sat 


fling 


flung 


sleep 


slept 


get 


got (gotten) 


sling 


slung 


grind 


ground 


slink 


slunk 


have 


had 


spend 


spent 


hear 


heard 


spin 


spun (span) 


hit 


hit 


spit 


spit (spat) 


hold 


held 


split 


split 


hurt 


hurt 


spread 


spread 


keep 


kept 


stand 


stood 


lay 


laid 


stick 


stuck 



TABLES OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



14B 



PRESENT 


PAST TENSE 


PRESENT 


past tense 


TENSE. 


AND PERF. PART. 


tense. 


AND PERF. PART. 


sting 


stung 




think 


thought 


string 


strung 




thrust 


thrust 


sweep 


swept 




weep 


wept 


swing 


swung 




win 


won 


teach 


taught 




wring 


wrung 


tell 


told 












Table III. 





This table includes verbs that are both regular and 
irregular. 

A. 

Verbs in which the regular form is preferred. 



PRESENT TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


PERF. PART. 


bend 


bended, bent 


bended, bent 


bereave 


bereaved, bereft 


bereaved, bereft 


blend 


blended, blent 


blended, blent 


bless 


blessed, blest 


blessed, blest 


burn 


burned, burnt 


burned, burnt 


cleave, stick 


cleaved (clave) 


cleaved 


clothe 


clothed, clad 


clothed, clad 


curse 


cursed, curst 


cursed, curst 


dive 


dived (dove) 


dived (dove) 


dream 


dreamed, dreamt 


dreamed, dreamt 


dress 


dressed, drest 


dressed, drest 


gild 


gilded, gilt 


gilded, gilt 


heave 


heaved, hove 


heaved, hove 


hew 


hewed 


hewed, hewn 


lade 


laded 


laded, laden 


lean 


leaned, leant 


leaned, leant 


leap 


leaped, leapt 


leaped, leapt 


learn 


learned, learnt 


learned, learnt 


light 


lighted, lit 


lighted, lit 


mow 


mowed 


mowed, mown 


pen, shut up 


penned, pent 


penned, pent 


plead 


pleaded (plead or 


pled) pleaded (plead or pled) 



144 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II. 



PRESENT TENSE. 


PAST TEX8E. 


PERK. PART. 


prove 


proved 


proved, proven 


reave 


reaved, reft 


reaved, reft 


rive 


rived 


rived, riven 


saw 


sawed 


sawed, sawn 


seethe 


seethed (sod) 


seethed, sodden 


shape 


shaped 


shaped, shapen 


shave 


shaved 


shaved, shaven 


shear 


sheared 


sheared, shorn 


smell 


smelled, smelt . 


smelled, smelt 


sow 


sowed 


sowed, sown 


spell 


spelled, spelt 


spelled, spelt 


spill 


spilled, spilt 


spilled, spilt 


spoil 


spoiled, spoilt 


spoiled, spoilt 


stave 


staved, stove 


staved, stove 


stay 


stayed, staid 


stayed, staid 


swell 


swelled 


swelled, swollen 


wake 


waked, woke 


waked, woke 


wax, grow 


waxed 


waxed (waxen) 


wed 


wedded 


wedded, wed 


whet 


whetted, whet 


whetted, whet 


work 


worked, wrought 


worked, wrought 



B. 



Verbs in which the irregular form is preferred. 



PRESENT TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


PERF. PART. 


awake 


awoke, awaked 


awaked, awoke 


belay 


belaid, belayed 


belaid, belayed 


bet 


bet, betted 


bet, betted 


crow 


crew, crowed 


crowed 


dare 


durst, dared 


dared 


dig 


dug, digged 


dug, digged 


dwell 


dwelt, dwelled 


dwelt, dwelled 


gird 


girt, girded 


girt, girded 


grave 


graved 


graven, graved 


hang 


hung, hanged^ 


hung, hanged 


kneel 


knelt, kneeled 


knelt, kneeled 


knit 


knit, knitted 


knit, knitted 



Referring to execution by suspension, hanged is preferable to hung. 



TABLES OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



145 



PRESENT TENSE. 


PAST TENSE. 


PERF. PART. 


quit 


quit, quitted 


quit, quitted 


rap 


rapt, rapped 


rapt, rapped 


rid 


rid, ridded 


rid, ridded 


shine 


shone (shined) 


shone (shined) 


show 


showed 


shown, showed 


shred 


shred, shredded 


shred, shredded 


shrive 


shrived, shrove 


shriven, shrived 


slit 


slit, slitted 


slit, slitted 


speed 


sped, speeded 


sped, speeded 


strew 


strewed 


strewn, strewed 


strow 


strowed 


strown, strowed 


sweat 


sweat, sweated 


sweat, sweated 


thrive 


throve, thrived 


thrived, thriven 


wet 


wet (wetted) 


wet (wetted) 


wind 


wound (winded) 


wound (winded) 



The verbs of the following list also are irregular ; but 
as they lack one or more of the principal parts, they are 
called defective verbs. 

Defective Verbs. 



PRESENT. 


PAST. 






PRESENT. PAST. 


can 




could 






ought 


may 




might 






quoth 


must 










beware 


shall 
will 




should 
would 






methinks methought 




All the participles 


are 


wanting 


in defective verbs. 



The verb oughts when used to express past duty or 
obligation, is followed by what is called the perfect infini- 
tive — a use peculiar to itself because it has no past form. 

Example : T ought to have gone yesterday. 

Other verbs expressing past time are used in the past 
tense followed by the root infinitive. 

Example: I intended to go yesterday. 

MET. KNG. GRAM. 10 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART 11. 

XCIX. VERBS, COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE. 

(Review Lessons XXXV.-XXXVIIL, pages 50-56.) 

Exercise. 

In the following sentences, (a) point out the incom- 
plete verbs ; (5) state whether they are followed by an 
object or an attribute ; (<?) if by an attribute, tell of what 
kind and what it modifies. 

1. That suit becomes you. 7. The prophet appeared. 

2. Jane became a musician. 8. The mother's anxiety continues. 

3. She walks a queen. 9. The physician continues hopeful. 

4. She walks to and fro. 10. The fledglings grew. 

5. He walked the floor. 11. The birds grew tame. 

6. The horse appears lame. 12. Arnold turned traitor. 

C. VERBS, COPULATIVE AND ATTRIBUTIVE. 

Intransitive verbs that require a complement are called 
copulative verbs. The complements of copulative verbs 
are either nouns (or pronouns) or adjectives. Such com- 
plements are called attributes of the subject. (See page 
54.) 

Intransitive verbs that do not require a complement, 
and all transitive verbs, may be resolved (sometimes with 
no change of meaning) into a copula and an attribute. 

Examples: The wind blows = The wind is blowing. 

The pupil studied = The pupil was studying. 

Such verbs are called attributive because they contain in 
themselves attributes of the subject. Thus, in the first 
sentence, blowing is an attribute of the wind, and in the 
second, the act of studying is ascribed to the pupil. 

Even the copulative verbs (except he) have two ofiices, 
viz. copulative and attributive, but their chief use being 



VERBS, COPULATIVE AND ATTRIBUTIVE. 147 

copulative, they are so classed. The copula he may be 
used in expressing their meaning. 

Examples : Sugar tastes sweet = Sugar is sweet to the taste. 

The snow felt cold = The snow luas cold to the touch. 

An attributive verb not only makes an assertion, but it 
indicates what is asserted of the subject. 

A copulative verb, on the other hand, requires a noun, 
a pronoun, an adjective, or a phrase to tell what is asserted 
of the subject. 

Examples : Attributive : The snow melts. The storm raged. 

Copulative : Elizabeth ivas queen. It was she. The 
ice will be thick. The lad looks in health. The girl 
looks ivell. The storm is raging. 

In these sentences, the words in Italics are the simple 
predicates. The unmodified predicate of a sentence, there- 
fore, must contain a verb, and it may contain a verb and a 
word or words expressing an attribute of the subject. 

Assuming an attribute is quite unlike predicating one. 

ATTRIBUTES ASSUMED. ATTRIBUTES PREDICATED. 

The tyrant sparrow. The sparrow is a tyrant. 

The frosted cake. The cake is frosted. 

Exercise. 

In each of the following sentences, (a) point out the 
simple predicate ; (5) change each attributive verb to its 
equivalent copulative verb and attribute. 

1. One's house is his castle. 7. Very pleasant is the memory. 

2. Wrens sang sweetly. 8. The sun shone clear. 

3. Our aim must be high. 9. We take the short route. 

4. The clouds gather. 10. Terror reigned. 

5. His face is gravely beautiful. 11. Less was impossible. 

6. The sailor boy dreamed. 12. The combat deepens. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART 11. 

CI. VERBS, COPULATIVE AND ATTRIBUTIVE 

(^continued). 

Exercise. 

{a) Point out the attributive verbs, and resolve each 
one into a copula and an attribute. 

(6) In the remaining sentences, name the copula or 
copulative verb, and tell what it connects. 

(c) In every sentence, classify the attribute as noun, 
adjective, or participle. 

Notice that the unmodified predicate is either an attribu- 
tive verb, or a copulative verb and an attribute. 

1. The morning light is breaking. 

2. The sun will soon gild the hilltops. 

3. Some seeming ills are blessings in disguise. 

4. Even wise men differ in opinion. 

5. A shorter call would have been less tiresome. 

6. Our welcome seemed unusually warm. 

7. Is your name Shylock? 

8. The minority report has been adopted. 

9. The camel's gait appears awkward. 

10. Silence reigns profound. 

11. John has become a skilled mechanic. 

12. Do France and Germany continue unfriendly? 

13. The fledglings grew strong. 

14. This granite will one day crumble. 

15. Our petitions have been slighted. 

16. The sun's rays linger on the hills. 

It will be seen that a sentence containing an attributive 
verb does not always have the same meaning as one that 
contains the same verb resolved into a copula and an 
attribute. The sun rises in the east^ may mean that it is 
rising now, or that it always rises in the east. Trees grow, 
may mean that they are growing now, or that it is a char- 
acteristic of trees to grow. 



THE ACTIVE AND THE PASSIVE VOICE. 149 



CII. THE ACTIVE AND THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

We express precisely the same thought in the two fol- 
lowing sentences : — 

The man bought a horse. A horse luas bought by the man. 

In the first sentence, the word man., the name of the one 
who performs the act of buying, is the subject; in the 
second sentence, the word horse^ the name of the object 
bought, is the subject. 

Voice is a form of the verb ^vhich indicates whether its 
subject names the doer or the receiver of the action. 

A verb is in the active voice when its subject names 
the doer of the action. 

Example: The farmer gathers the harvest. 

A verb is in the passive voice when its subject names 
the receiver of the action. 

Example : The harvest is gathered by the farmer. 

Exercise. 

Her path was strewn with flowers. (Passive Voice.) 
Flowers strewed her path. (Active Voice.) 

The verb was strewn is in the passive voice because the 
subject path names the thing acted ujDon. (What was 
strewn .^) 

The subject of the passive form becomes the direct 
object of the verb in the active. 



(a) Tell whether the verbs in the following sentences 
are in the active or in the passive voice, and Avhy. 

(5) Rewrite each sentence, changing the voice of the 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART 11. 

verb, and tell what change is made in the order of the 
sentence. 

(c) Analyze the fifth and thirteenth sentences. 

1. The ways were strewn with flowers. 

2. One faithful harp shall praise thee. 

3. Our toils are crowned with success. 

4. He stemmed the wild torrent. 

5. Greece did at length a learned race produce. 

6. The eastern sky is spanned by a beautiful bow. 

7. Winter has made a barren waste. 

8. Doubtful words often afford ground for quarrels. 

9. Now home his footsteps he hath turned. 

10. True expression gilds all objects. 

11. Their thirst was slaked at the crystal stream. 

12. My thoughts are bent on your success. 

13. Mice and rats were luxuiiously fed by the thoughtless children. 

14. We will defeat the trickster's purpose. 

15. The sun has stored the garners with his gifts. 

cm. INTRANSITIVE VERBS HAVE NO PASSIVE VOICE. 

We have found in the preceding exercise that when the 
verb in a sentence is changed from the active to the pas- 
sive voice, the name of the object receiving the action 
becomes the subject. 

ACTIVE. PASSIVE. 

John bought a sled. The sled was bought by John. 

The dog tore the flesh. The flesh was torn by the dog. 

From this it follows that verbs having no objects, that 
is, intransitive verbs, cannot be changed into the passive 
voice ; i^hey have no objects to become the subjects in the 
passive. 

Example : The rain falls gently. The enemy retreated. 

However, an intransitive verb followed by a preposition 
and its object may sometimes be made to assume the passive 



INTRANSITIVE VERBS HAVE NO PASSIVE VOICE. 151 

form. In this case, the object of the preposition becomes 
the subject, and the preposition itself becomes a part of the 
verb-phrase. 

Examples : The men played for money = Money was played for by 
the men. 
No one had thought of danger = Danger had been thought 
ofhy no one.^ 

Exercise. 

(ji) Change the following sentences from the active to 
the passive voice, or give a reason why they cannot be 
thus changed. Do not change the tense of the verb. 

(5) Analyze the last two sentences. 

1. We expect good news. 

2. The traveler feels the heat. 

3. The wounded bird escaped. 

4. I seized the opportunity. 

5. The morning dawned calm and clear. 

6. The modern steamer sails swiftly. 

7. Our farmers look for fine crops. 

8. My friend's mind acts quickly. 

9. The merchant recognizes the young man's ability. 

10. The general examined their claims. 

11. The combatants had rushed forward. 

12. The artist will decorate the arch. 

13. You have placed his act in a false light. 

14. The audience will hear an eloquent plea. 

15. Such an example incites young men to a noble career. 

16. Children welcome the springtime. 

17. The invalid sat in his armchair all the day. 

18. He dealt kindly with his son. 

19. Every day's experience raised the boy in my esteem. 

20. A horse trod on the child's foot. 

21. Health and plenty cheered the laboring swain. 

1 The phrase formed by an intransitive verb and a preposition is equivalent 
to a transitive verb ; the noun following being in effect the object of the verb 
so strengthened. 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART IT. 

CIA^ FORMATION OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. 

(Review Lesson XCIIL, pages 131, 132.) 

We have seen what changes take place in the construc- 
tion of a sentence when its verb is changed from the 
active to the passive voice, and also why intransitive 
verbs cannot be used in the passive. Some intransitive 
verbs may be used in forming a verb-phrase that resembles 
the passive. 

Examples: The melancholy days are come. 

The lines are fallen unto me in pleasant places. 

Show from the definition of voice on page 149 that are 
come and are falleyi^ in the examples above, are not pas- 
sive verb-phrases. 

In Lesson XXXVII. (pages 53, 54), we learned that the 
verb he has several forms (am, iVs-, are., was, tvere), and that, 
in a sentence, it usually connects the subject with some 
word or words called the complement. 

The flower is beautiful. 

In this sentence, the verb is connects the predicate 
adjective beautiful with the subject floiver. 

In the passive voice of any verb, some form of be does 
the same thing. 

The man tvas deceived by him. 

Here the verb was connects the subject man with the 
verbal adjective (participle) deceived. 

Such adjectives, as already learned, are called verbal 
because they are derived from, and will take the modi- 
fiers of, verbs. However, they are more frequently 
called perfect participles, — perfect because they express 
completed action, and ijartieiphs because, while perform- 



FOKMATIOX OF THE PASSIVE VOICE. 153 

ing the office of adjectives, they may take the modifiers 
of verbs. 

Every passive form of the verb, therefore, is made by 
joining some form of the verb he to the perfect participle 
of a transitive verb. 

Exercise. 

(a) In the following sentences, give the subjects and 
predicates, and tell which verbs are transitive and which 
are intransitive. 

(^>) Rewrite the sentences containing transitive verbs, 
changing them into the passive voice, and in each case tell 
how the passive form is made. 

(c) Analyze the sentences. 

1. Golden fruits on loaded branches shine. 

2. Pleasures pass like fleeting dreams. 

3. The innocent sometimes bear the blame. 

4. This author's pious thought lives in each page. 

5. Drunkenness banishes the reason. 

6. Her face marked each hour of the day witii love. 

7. We will persevere to the end. 

8. Moments of joy come in the night-time of sorrow. 

9. She walked in Paradise. 

10. With thee depart the warmth and light of life. 

11. Some writers affect a lofty style. 

12. The water has risen above the levee. 

13. I will not touch thee, sparkling bowl. 

14. The morning dew mirrored a million suns. 

15. This weeping child has wandered from his home. 

16. Jealousy has turned the man's gentle nature into bitterness. 

17. A false report increased the anxiety. 

18. He welcomed his guest with real warmth. 

19. The hot color rushed to the prisoner's face. 

20. My companion took advantage of his years. 

21. A man's thoughts sometimes outspeed the lightning. 

22. Each year beholds the farmer's patient toil. 

23. Their voices gave forth a glad shout. 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II. 



CV. MODES. 

In some languages the verb is inflected to indicate the 
mode, or manner, in which it asserts action, being, or state. 
Such inflection is called mode ; but in English there is no 
such inflection. 

Mode is the manner in which verbs assert action, being, or 
state. 

Examples : — 

The wind blows fiercely. (A simple statement.) 

If he luere here, I should be glad. (A conditional assertion.) 

Come home at once. (A command.) 

A verb that is used to declare a fact or to ask a question 
is said to be in the indicative mode. 

Examples : The blind receive their sight, the lame walk, the lepers 
are cleansed, and the deaf hear. Who hath believed our report? 

A verb that is used to express a command or an entreaty 
is said to be in the imperative mode. 

Examples : Behold (ye) your prison-bars. 

Give (thou) us this day our daily bread. 

The subject of an imperative sentence is the pronoun 
that points out the one addressed; and, as the person 
addressed must be present and may readily be identified, 
the pronoun is usually omitted. When the subject is 
expressed, it follows the verb ; as, Follow thou me. 

Requests and entreaties are often made by using sen- 
tences containing auxiliaries; as, Mai/ I take your pen? 
The name imperative, however, is applied to such sentences 
only as allow the omission of a subject. 

Do and he are the only auxiliaries used in the imperative 
mode. 



MODES. 155 



Exercise. 



(a) Point out the simple subject and the predicate verb 
of each of the following sentences. 

(5) In what mode and tense is each verb, and why ? 

(c) Point out one verb in the passive voice, and show 
how it is formed. 

(^d) Point out two or more complex sentences, and the 
clauses that make them complex. 

1. Be noble ! and the nobleness that lies 
In other men, sleeping but never dead, 
Will rise in majesty to meet thine own. 

2. Men are bound together by a thousand ties. 

3. Do not the innocent suffer in the penalties of the guilty ? 

4. Love your enemies. Bless them that curse you. 

5. We take no note of time but from its loss. 

6. Be not like dumb, driven cattle ! 
Be a hero in the strife. 

7. What ! is the jay more precious than the lark, 
Because his feathers are more beautiful ? 

8. Does good nmsic ever send you to sleep? 

9. Dry den's genius was of that sort which catches fire by its own 

motion. 

10. This above all, to thine own self be true. 

11. Errors like straws upon the surface flow : 

He who would search for pearls must dive below. 

12. Hear the just law, the judgment of the skies ! 
He that hates truth shall be the dupe of lies. 

13. Think, too, in what a woeful plight 

The wretch must be whose pocket's light. 

14. Did Raphael's pencil never choose to fall? 
Say, are his works transfigurations all? 

15. Pluck up thy spirits, look cheerfully upon me. 

16. These mountain forms now seem a family of giants. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART 11. 

CVI. CONJUGATION. 

A verb in English has but few inflections, or changes in 
spelling, even the most irregular having but five inflected 
forms in common use. As substitutes for inflections, we 
use, in combination with participles and infinitives, certain 
words called auxiliaries. 

Among the most common auxiliaries are, do (^did)^ have 
(has^ liad)^ shall, and luill. 

The combination of an auxiliary with a participle or an 
infinitive to make an assertion is called a verb-phrase. 
(See Lesson XXXII. , page 47.) 

Examples : Do go, has gone, shall come, may be, should write. 

Verb-phrases are often called forms of the verb, because 
they are used in sentences in our language just as real 
forms, or inflections, are used in inflected languages. 

An orderly arrangement of the forms of a verb in the dif- 
ferent modes and tenses is called its conjugation. 

The word form is also used for another purpose. The 
usual form of a verb or verb-phrase is called the common 
form (of speech). 

A verb-phrase in which the auxiliary do or did is used 
immediately before the verb, is called the emphatic form, 
because such forms make assertions in an emphatic 
manner. 

Examples: I ^o study. He (/oe.s try. She c?iW returu. 

Certain peculiar verb forms found in the Bible, and 
used also in poetry and in addresses to the Deity, are 
called ancient or solemn forms (or styles) . 

Examples: Thou hast been our dwelling-place. 

She of her penury hath cast in all that she had. 
He giveth to all liberally, and uphraideth not. 



CONJUGATION. 157 



CVII. CONJUGATION {continued). 

A verb is said to be in the first, second, or third person, 
according as its subject is in the first, second, or third 
person. It is also said to be in the singular number 
when its subject is singular, and in the plural number 
when its subject is plural. 

A verb, therefore, takes its number and person from its 
subject. As will be seen hereafter, the form of a verb 
does not often depend upon the person and number of 
its subject. 

Conjugation of the Verb Be. 

Indicative Mode — Common Form. 

Present Tense. 
SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

First Per. T am We are 

Sec. Per. You are You are 

Third Per. He is They are 

You will notice in this tense, three different forms of 
the verb — am, zs, and are. These forms, as may readily 
be seen, are not inflections of he. They are derived from 
different Anglo-Saxon verbs. 

Am is used only in the present tense and with the pro- 
noun /as its subject. 

Is is never used except in the indicative mode, present 
tense, third person, singular number. 

In the plural there is but one form — are. The same 
form appears in the second person singular, because in 
common speech we use the plural pronoun you to desig- 
nate one person. 

The pronoun you^ whether it means one or more than 
one, always requires the plural form of the verb. 



158 EI^GLISH GRAMMAR, PART n. 



Exercise I. 

Insert «m, is, or are in each blank below, and give a 
reason for your choice. 

1. These vases fine, and I glad to own thein. 

2. Tlie summons received, and the man here. 

3. You and I goiiig^ though he not. 

4. One of the trees in bloom, but three dead 

5. You and John to blame, I sure. 

6. The pen mislaid, and he looking for it. 

7. The farmer's oats sold, and he returning home. 

8. There six in this party, and only two in that. 

9. The w^oods filled with the songs of birds. 

10. Xeither the doctor nor his assistant present. 

11. A flock of sheep grazing in the field. 

12. Our school usually dismissed at four o'clock, but the pupils 

sometimes detained a few minutes. 

13. The committee now in session, but many of the members 

anxious to go home. 

14. I can now see the men who in the boat. 

15. Neither road pleasant, both rugged and hilly. 

Exercise 2. 
Past Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

First Per. 1 was We were 

Sec. Per. You were You were 

Third Per. He was They were 



(a) How many forms of the verb do you find in the 
past tense ? 

(5) What is the plural form in this tense ? 

(c) Why does this form appear in the second person 
singular ? 

((i) Substitute some noun for the subject he in the 
third person singular, and complete the sentence. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE. 159 

(e) Substitute some noun for the subject the?/ in the 
third person plural, and complete the sentence. 

(/) Write six sentences that will show the different 
forms of the verb be in the past tense, and arrange them 
as in the conjugation above. 

Future Tense. 
(Review Lesson XCII. , page 129. ) 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Fi7'st Per. I shall be We shall be 

Sec. Per. You will be You will be 

Third Per. He will be They will be 

The forms of the future tense, as written above, express 
a future event. 

(^) Write the forms of he (in the future tense,) so as 
to express determination. 

No verb (except the auxiliaries shall and ivilT) is inflected 
in the future tense ; hence, the onlj thing to learn in con- 
nection with this tense is the proper use of shall and will. 

Imperative Mode. 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Sec. Per. Be, or be thou Be, or be ye or you 

CVni. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE {continued). 

Interrogative Form. 

In the interrogative form, the subject follows the verb 
or its first auxiliary. 

Examples : Am I ? Will they come ? Had all been seen ? 

The interrogative conjugation of the future tense is 
peculiar. It is as follows : — 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II. 

(a) To Express Futurity. 

First Per. Shall I be? Shall we be? 

Sec. Per. Shall you be ? Shall you be ? 

Third Per. Will he be ? Will they be ? 

(b) To Express Determination. 

Fi7'st Per. (wanting) (wanting) ^ 

Sec. Per. Will you be ? Will you be ? 

Third Per. Shall he be ? Shall they be ? 



Exercise. 

(«) Answer each of the following questions so as to 
show the proper use of shall or will. 

(6) Point out in each question and answer, whether 
determination or mere futurity is implied. If determina- 
tion, tell whose determination. 

1. Shall I (we) be in time? 

2. Shall you be at the train ? 

:J. Will he (they) be with you ? 

4. Will you be my guide ? 

5. Shall he (they) be invited ? 

Progressive and Passive Forms. 

The progressive form of a verb is made by combining the 
imperfect participle of the verb with the forms of be as 
given in the foregoing tables of conjugations. In like 
manner, the passive form is made by combining the perfect 
participle of a verb with the forms of be. 

Progressive forms : is going : was loriting ; icere striking. 
Passive forms : is delayed ; was icritten ; icere struck. 

1 The interrogative use of loill in the first person is never correct except in 
repetition. Expressions like, Where will I find a time-table ? What will ice 
do for a leader? are wrong. Say, Where shall I find it? What shall ice do? 



THE ANCIENT, OR SOLEMN, FORM. 161 

CIX. THE ANCIENT, OR SOLEMN, FORM. 

Below are shown the forms of the verb he^ in the solemn 
style, which differ from those in the common style. 

Present Tense: Thou art 

Past Tense : Thou wast or loert 

Future Tense : Thou shalt be ov wilt he 

In all other verbs, the changes in the ancient style are as 
follows : — 

With thou as the subject, the termination t, st, or est, is 
added to the common form of the verb. 

Examples : Thou hast, thou hadst, thou workest, thou workedst. 

When the subject is in the third person singular, the 
termination eth is added to the verb. 

Examples: My Father icorketh. God loveth a cheerful giver. 

Has changes to hath. Does changes to doth if an aux- 
iliary, otherwise to doeth. Is does not change. 

Examples : Who hath sorrow ? What doth the Lord require of thee ? 

In verb-phrases, the terminations given above are added 
to the auxiliaries, and not to the participles or infinitives 
with which the auxiliaries are combined. 

Examples : Thou hast given ; thou hadst gone ; thou mayst go. 

Exercise I. 

Give the tense of each verb below; also the number and 
person of its subject. 

1. Blessed is he whom thou chastenest. 

2. Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth. 

3. The fig tree thou cursedst is dead. 

4. Thou deliveredst unto me five talents. 

5. Here am I, for thou calledst me. 

6. Thou changest his countenance and sendest him away, 

MET. ENG. GRAM. — 11 



162 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART 11. 

Exercise 2. 

Change the following to the common style, but without 
changing the meaning. 

1. All is dark where thou art not. 

2. How kind an office hath been done '. 

3. Thou hearkenedst not to the Lord. 

4. He that dwelleth in love, dwelleth in God. 

5. I forgave thee because thou desiredst me. 

6. He that loveth his brother abideth in the light. 

7. I say to this man, " Go," and he goeth ; and to another, "Come," 

and he cometh ; and to my servant, " Do this," and he doeth it. 

8. Charity suffereth long, and is kind ; charity vaunteth not itself, is 

not puffed up, doth not behave itself unseemly. 

9. Immortal Love, 
Thou madest life in man — 

Thou wilt not leave him in the dust. 

10. Oh, what hadst thou to do with cruel Death, 
Who wast so full of life, or Death with thee, 

That thou shouldst die before thou hadst grown old ! 

11. All that thou canst call thine own 
Lies in thy to-day. 

ex. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE. 

Primary Tenses. 

Indicative Mode — Common Form. 





Present 


Tense. 




SINGULAR. 






PLURAL. 


I have 






We have 


You have 






You have 


He has 






They have 




Past 


Tense. 




I had 






We had 


You had 






You had 


He had 






They had 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB MOVE. 163 

Future Tense. 

I shall have We shall have 

You will have You will have 

He will have They will have 

In the preceding table we see the forms of have in three 
tenses of the indicative mode. 

Besides the three primary tenses, there are three others 
called perfect tenses. Thus we have six tenses in all, — 
the present and present perfect, the past and past perfect, 
the future and future perfect. 

By using the perfect participle with the present tense 
of have, we make the present perfect; as, I have spoken. 
By combining it with the past tense of have., we make 
tlie past perfect; as. You had sjjoken. By combining it 
with the future tense of have^ we make the future per- 
fect; as, ITe will have spoken.^ 



Present Perfect Tense (of speaTc). 
Common Form. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

I have spoken We have spoken 

You have spoken You have spoken 

He has spoken They have spoken 

CXI. CONJUGATION OF THE VERB MOVE. 

Active Voice. — Primary Tenses. 

Principal Parts. — Pres., move; Past, moved; Perf. Part., moved. 

Indicative Mode — Common Form. 

Present Tense. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

I move We move 

You move You move 

He moves They move 

1 The perfect tenses will receive special attention in Part III. 



164 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART H. 

Past Tense. 
I moved We moved 

You moved You moved 

He moved They moved 

Future Tense. 
I shall move We shall move 

You will move You will move 

He will move They will move 

Exercise. 

(<2) Write the declarative and the interrogative conju- 
gations of look in the present, past, and future tenses. 

(5) What is the order of an interrogative sentence when 
an auxiliary is used? When no auxiliary is used? 

(c) Complete the conjugation of the verb move in the 
passive voice, indicative mode, through the three follow- 
ing tenses. (See Lesson CIV., page 152.) 

Passive Voice. — Primary Tenses. 
Indicative Mode. 

Present Tense. 

singular. plural. 

I am moved We are moved 

Past Tense. 
I was moved 

Future Tense. 
I shall be moved 

Active and Passive Voices. 
Imperative Mode. 

Present Tense. 
singular. plural. 

Active. Move, or move thou Move, or move ye 

Passive. Be moved, or be thou Be moved, or be ye moved 

moved 



AGREEMENT. 165 

CXII. AGREEMENT. 

You have learned in previous lessons that am, is, was^ 
has, hath, and the -s forms of all verbs are singular ; that 
is, when used as predicate verbs, they require singular 
subjects. The forms are and tvere are plural and must 
have plural subjects. The only exception to this rule is 
found in the subjunctive mode ; here we have the expres- 
sions, if I tvere, if he were, etc. 

Care must be taken to use these verbs correctly. A few 
simple rules may be of service. 

Singular. 

The following subjects of verbs or antecedents of pro- 
nouns are singular, and verbs and pronouns must have 
forms to correspond : — 

(1) A collective noun in the singular number and de- 
noting a group of objects as one thing. 

Examples: Our school ivas very quiet. 

The jury is discharged. 

(2) Two or more singular nouns joined by and, but 
denoting only one person or thing. 

Example : My friend and benefactor is here. 

(3) A singular noun or pronoun modified by each, every, 
either, neither, many a, or no. 

Examples : Many a man has been defrauded. 

Each one of the prisoners pleads guilty. 
Every man, ^Yoman, and child seems joyous. 

(4) Two or more singular nouns or pronouns connected 
by or, either . . . or, 7ieither . . . nor. 

Example : Neither the child nor his teacher ivas present. 



166 ENGLISH GEAMMAR, PART n. 

Plural. 

The following subjects of verbs or antecedents of pro- 
nouns are plural : — 

(1) A collective noun in the singular number when 
special reference is made to the individuals composing the 
collection. 

Example : The committee were invited, and all wished to be present. 

(2) Two or more singular subjects, joined by and, and 
denoting different persons or things. 

Encample : Your pen, ink, and paper are on the table. 

Caution : Although with or together with, followed by 
an object, may make a seeming addition to a subject, the 
latter is not thus made compound. 

Examples : The farmer, with his two sons, has gone to the field. 
This, together with your statement, convinces me. 

(3) A singular noun, which, by the use of two or more 
adjectives, is made to refer to more than one thing. 

Example: Manual and physical training are now required. 

(4) Few, many, and several are plural; most, some, the 
rest, etc., are plural or singular according to use. 

Example : Few are now living who fought in the war of I8I2. 

Of two or more subjects connected by or or nor and 
differing in person or number, the one nearest the verb 
determines its form. 

Examples: It is not decided whether you or I ain to copy the 
minutes. Either I or you are to blame. 

Expressions like these, however, are displeasing, and 
should be avoided. The following are preferable. 

Examples : It is not decided whether the minutes aj-e to be copied 
by you or by me. Either you are to blame or I am. 



AGREEMENT. 167 

CXIII. AGREEMENT (continued). 

When a phrase containing a plural noun follows a sin- 
gular subject, care must be taken to use a singular verb. 

Example : Not a word of his lessons was learned at home. 

The subject of the verb must be in the nominative case. 

The object of a transitive verb or a preposition must be 
in the objective case. 

Under these rules, mistakes frequently occur in the use 
of those pronouns whose nominative and objective case- 
forms are unlike. 

Examples: I walked as far as he (not him). 

He and / (not him and me) have been coasting. 

Whether who or whom is proper to introduce a given 
sentence or clause, must be determined by the office the 
pronoun is to fill, i.e. whether subject or object. 

Examples : Father spoke to the person who he supposed had taken 
the message. Who7n do you think I met ? 

Exercise. 
Analyze the following sentences. 

1. She is a mother whom I call both gentle and firm. 

2. Guess who won the prize. 

3. The height of the cliffs exceeds five hundred feet. 

4. He is one of the best men that I ever knew. 

5. Tell me whom you saw. 

6. Not a dollar of his millions was given to the poor. 

7. I addressed the man whom I took to be the guard. 

8. Here was one who, I thought, must be familiar with the ways of 

the Court. 

9. Judge Ireson dealt leniently with the prisoner, whose youth gained 

the pity of the people. 
10. Whom do you think I saw in Washington ? 



168 ENGLISH GRAlSmAR, PAKT II. 

CXIV. WORD BUILDING. 

A prefix is a letter or letters joined to the beginning of 
a word to modify its meaning. 

A suffix is a letter or letters joined to the end of a word 
to modify its meaning. 

A root word is a word from which other words are formed. 

Primitives, Derivatives, Compounds. 

Most English words in common use are made directly 
from Anglo-Saxon words by changes in spelling ; as, father 
iromfaeder; heaven from heofen; forgive ivova forgyf. 

The language has been enriched, however, from many 
different sources. Many words have been adopted from 
other languages without change ; as, tahle^ dame, prairie, 
humble, from the French, — medium, ratio, plus, minus, 
factor, from the Latin, — alto, portico, from the Italian. 

Other English words are made from parts of foreign 
words, these parts being taken as roots from which the 
English word is made by means of prefixes or suffixes, or 
both. Thus, from scrihere (Latin), meaning to write, we 
derive transcribe, inscribe, circumscribe, by means of the 
prefixes trans, in, and circum. 

The foreign Avord from which English words are made is 
frequently called the root, though, in fact, the real root is 
only a part of the foreign word. 

The real foreign root is nearly always a monosyllable, 
but often it is so hidden that it would be useless for any 
but a classical scholar to try to find it. The foreign word 
itself, therefore, from which the English words are derived, 
may be called a root word. 

Many English words are derived from simpler English 
words by means of prefixes and suffixes ; as, un-time-ly. 



WORD BUILDING. 169 

Here time may be considered the root of untimely. Tin is 
the prefix, and ly the suffix. 

Prefixes are frequently modified in form by the first 
letter of the root, so that the sound will be more pleas- 
ing to the ear. 

Example: ad takes the forms a, ac, af^ ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at; that 
is, the prefix ad is modified either by dropping the d or 
by changing it into the first letter of the root to which 
it is prefixed; as, af-Jix, ap-pend, al-low, assist, etc. 

A word made from a root by means of a prefix or a 
suffix, or both, is called a derivative. The root itself is 
sometimes called a primitive. 

New words are also made by combining two or more 
simple words ; as, silversmith., inkstand., mother-iii-law^ never- 
theless. Such words are called compound words. (See 
Lesson LX., page 81.) 

A careful examination of the writings of most English 
authors will show that in every hundred words, about 
sixty are Anglo-Saxon, thirty Latin, and five Greek. In 
the Bible and in Bunyan's Pilgrim's Progress^ we find 
that over ninety words out of a hundred are Anglo- 
Saxon. 

The following extract from the Bible will be of interest. 
The words not in Italics are Anglo-Saxon. 

" In the beginning God created the heaven and the eartii. And the 
earth was without form and void ; and darkness was upon tlie face of 
the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. 
And God said, Let there be light : and there was light. And God 
saw the light, that it was good : and God divided the light from the 
darkness." 

In this extract, of the seven words that are not Anglo- 
Saxon, two came directly from the Latin, and five from 
the Latin through the French. 



170 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART n. 

CXV. DERIVATIVES. 

Three things are of importance in connection with the 
study of a word : — 

(1) its origin ; (2) its use ; (3) its spelling. 

a = in, on. 

Abed = in bed ; aground = on ground. 

On page 276 you will find the meaning of the prefixes, 
a, mis, out, un, with. 

With the aid of your dictionary, find two words that 
will illustrate each of the prefixes above, and use the words 
in sentences. 

CXVI. DERIVATIVES (continued). 

er, ard = one tvho. 
Printer = one who prints ; drunkard = one who drinks. 

On page 278 you will find the meaning of the suffixes 
ard, dom, en, er, ery, ish, kin. 

Find two words that will illustrate the meaning of each 
of the suffixes above. 

CXVII. DERIVATIVES {continued). 

due, duct = lead. 
Conductor = one who leads ; produce = to lead forth. 

On page 280 you will find the meaning of the following 
roots : am, amat; aud, audit ; due, duct. 

Find two or more words that will illustrate the meaning 
of each root. 



DERIVATIVES. 



171 



CXVm. DERIVATIVES (continued). 

A + shore = on shore ; pain -\-ful=full of pain. 

Join a prefix or a suffix to each of the following words, 
and give the meaning of the derivative. 



pun 


Arab 


print 


circle 


auction 


war 


cash 


heart 


danger 


trouble 


pain 


favor 


clerk 


plague 


quarrel 


hill 


shore 


cigar 


pilgrim 


comfort 


king 


honor 


arctic 


annual 


apprentice 


lamb 


rogue 


martyr 


animal 


confection 



CXIX. DERIVATIVES (continued). 
Ignoble = not noble ; ig = not. 
Show the meaning of the prefixes in the following 



derivatives. 








afoot 


empower 


underscore 


intermingle 


affix 


encamp 


discontinue 


interrupt 


annex 


immerse 


disbelief 


opponent 


bedeck 


preconcerted 


dependent 


pervade 


becloud 


misconduct 


forerunner 


anteroom 


connect 


outstrip 


ignoble 


counteract 


ennoble 


oversleep 


immodest 


countermand 



CXX. DERIVATIVES (continued). 
Fertilize = to make fertile ; ize = to make. 
Show the meaning of the suffixes in the following. 



modernize 

tranquil ize 

civilize 

vocalist 

specialist 

matronly 



womanly 

flowery 

vulgarity 

equality 

fertility 

gentleness 



politeness 

sleeplessness 

laboratory 

observatory 

assignee 

mortgagee 



hennery 

piggery 

plantlet 

rivulet 

brazen 

wooden 



172 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART 11. 



CXXI. DERIVATIVES (continued). 

Transcribe is a derivative. The root word is scribo^ 
meaning I write. The prefix is trans, meaning over. 
Transcribe means, to write over ; and transcription means, 
something written over. 

(1) Point out the root of each derivative and give its 
meaning. (2) Point out the prefix or suffix and give its 
meaning. (3) Give the meaning of the word. 

circumscribe inscribe describe colloquy 

superscribe proscribe manuscript collide 

prescribe subscribe postscript collision 

CXXII. SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

1. No might nor greatness in mortality- 
Can censure 'scape ; back-wounding calumny 
The whitest virtue strikes. 

2. The soul's dark cottage, battered and decayed, 

Lets in new light through chinks that time has made. 

3. The old house by the lindens 

Stood silent in the shade, 
And on the graveled pathway 
The light and shadow played. 

4. Hope is the capital on which the world does business. 

5. Hope is the bright day-star that leads man from the cradle to 

the grave. 

6. I have known eminent men who had not the power to state a 

fact -^ the lenses by which they saw their facts were not ad- 
justed properly. 

7. Great victories are for those only who entertain great hopes. 

8. A handful of red sand, from the hot clime 

Of Arab deserts brought, 
Within this glass becomes the spy of Time, 
The minister of Thought. 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 173 

9. The angel showed the names of those whom love of God had 
blest. 

10. Every gift of noble origin is breathed upon by Hope's perpetual 

breath. 

11. Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice. 

12. Our cradle is the starting place ; 
Life is the running of the race ; 

We reach the goal 
When, in the mansions of the blest, 
Death leaves to its eternal rest 

The weary soul. 

13. Reading is often mere idling. 

14. His was a faith that could not fail. 

15. This genus of plants has caused some discussion among bot- 

anists. 

16. He seldom took two shots at a deer. 

17. The change of fashion is the tax that the industry of the poor 

levies on the vanity of the rich. 

18. The boy becomes a man. 

19. Boyish behavior does not become a man. 

20. Barges with carved and gilded prows and silken awnings fringed 

and tasseled richly, all laden with revelry, are gliding up and 
down the river. 

21. And fast through the midnight, dark and drear, • 

Through the whistling sleet and snow. 
Like a sheeted ghost, the vessel swept 
Towards the reef of Norman's woe. 

And ever, the fitful gusts between, 

A sound came from the land ; 
It was the sound of the trampling surf 

On the rocks and the hard sea sand. 

22. The one event which never loses its romance is the encounter 

with superior persons on terms allowing the happiest inter- 
course. 

23. Childhood is the bough where slumbered 
Birds and blossoms many-numbered; 
Age, that bough with snows encumbered. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II. 

24. There in the tranquil evenings of summer, when brightly the 

sunset 
Lighted the village street, and gilded the vanes on the chimneys, 
Matrons and maidens sat in snow-white caps and in kirtles 
Scarlet and blue and green, with distaffs spinning the golden 
Flax for the gossiping looms, whose noisy shuttles wdthin doors 
Mingled their sound with the whir of the wheels and the songs 

of the maidens. 

25. Anon from the belfry 
Softly the Angelus sounded, and over the roofs of the village 
Columns of pale blue smoke, like clouds of incense ascending. 
Rose from a hundred hearths, the homes of peace and content- 
ment. 

Thus dwelt together in love these simple Acadian farmers. 

26. Neither locks had they to their doors, nor bars to their windows ; 
But their dwellings were open as day and the hearts of their 

owners ; 
There the richest were poor, and the poorest lived in abundance. 

27. She is ever on the watch (watchful). 

28. I've been ever in fear (fearful) to kindle your dislike. 

29. The current was passing rapidly, but with a placidity that re- 

minded me of the old proverb, " Still waters run deep." 

30. Sparkling like a diamond 

Beams the day-star in the skies ; 
Nature, loosed from winter's bond, 

Smiles as one in sweet surprise ; 
Hawthorns wear their wedding white. 

Pastures show their greenest guise, — 
Earth is laughing with delight. 

31. I'll put a girdle round about the earth 
In forty minutes. 

32. How far that little candle throws its beams I 
So shines a good deed in a naughty world. 

33. He that wants money, means, and content is without three good 

friends. 

34. To cherish joyously the largest hope is to see this world in its 

radiance. 



SELECTIOXS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 175 

35. Bashfulness and apathy are a tough husk, in which a delicate 

organization is protected from premature ripening. 

36. In circles where he was well known, the eldest of the brothers 

had gained the name of a hanger-on. 

37. 'Tis the philosophy of desperate want to face one grief at once. 

38. He lives in fame that died in virtue's cause. 

39. When Sumter is fired at, or bondage grasps at new soil, the most 

stupid feel the shock and start to their feet. 

40. In the gallery of portraits of great men at Versailles, the most 

striking is that of Daniel Webster. 

41. There are names that have in them all the sweetness of music ; 

and when they are spoken they bring peace and comfort and 
beautiful memories. 

42. Some branches of knowledge may be safely left to such persons 

as can devote themselves to special pursuits. 

43. They are never alone that are accompanied with noble thoughts. 

44. Act always so that the immediate motive of thy will may become 

a universal rule for all intelligent beings. 

45. The roses are a regal troop, 

And modest folk the daisies ; 

But, Bluebells of New England, 

To you I give my praises, — 

To you, fair phantoms of the sun. 

Whom merry Spring discovers. 
With bluebirds for your laureates 

And honeybees for lovers. 

The south wind breathes, and, lo ! you throng 

This rugged land of ours : 
I think the pale-blue clouds of May 

Drop down, and turn to flowers ! 

All night your eyes are closed in sleep, 

Kept fresh for day's adorning. 
Such simple faith as yours can see 

God's coming in the morning. 

You lead me, by your holiness, 

To pleasant ways of duty ; 
You set my thoughts to melody, 

You fill me with your beauty. 



In Part I. we studied the construction of the sentence. We learned 
that every sentence has a subject and a predicate, and that it may 
have modifying words, phrases, or clauses. We also learned that the 
words of which all sentences are made, may be divided, according 
to their use, into eight classes, or parts of speech, each class containing 
all the words that are used in the same general way. 

The names of the eight classes are as follows : Nouns, Pronouns, 
Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Inter- 
jections. 

In Part I. we studied the parts of speech with special reference to 
their uses in sentences, giving very little attention to the subdivisions 
of the parts of speech, or to the subject of inflection. 

In Part II. we studied the subdivisions of the parts of speech with 
considerable care, and directed special attention to inflections, — what 
they are, and what they mean. 

In Part III. we shall study further the parts of speech, and espe- 
cially such of their subdivisions as have received, in Parts I. and II., 
but little attention because of the difficulties connected with them. 

In order to prepare for this work, we shall first review the main 
features of what has already been done. 

176 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 
Part III. 

CXXIIL THE SENTENCE. 

A group of words expressing a complete thought is a 
sentence ; but the same group of words that at one time 
forms a complete sentence may at another time form only 
part of a sentence. 

The statement, The child entered the room, may express 
a complete thought, and in that case the written expres- 
sion would be followed by a period. But one might say. 
The child entered the room reluctantly, or with his classmate, 
or just as the clock struck nine. In these cases. The child 
entered the room is only a part of a longer sentence, all of 
which is needed to express the more comprehensive thought. 

A -written sentence is followed by a period (.), an inter- 
rogation mark (?), or an exclamation point (!). 

Exercise I. 
Birds are singing. 
The happy birds in field and wood are singing their wel- 
come to the daivn. 

The, happy, and in field and tvood, are adjective modi- 
fiers of birds ; welcome is the object of the verb are singing, 
and is modified by the pronominal adjective their ; to the 
dawn is an adverbial modifier of are singing, telling to what 
they are singing. 

MET. ENG. GRAM. 12 177 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART HI. 

(a) Rewrite each of the following sentences so that it 
will express a fuller or more comprehensive thought. 

(5) Point out each modifying word, phrase, or clause 
that you have added, and tell what, and in what way, it 
modifies. 



1. 


Birds are singing. 


7. 


Kindness had been shown. 


2. 


Stars shine. 


8. 


The cathedral will be visited, 


3. 


Music is heard. 


9. 


Sheep scamper. 


4. 


Rain fell. 


10. 


The forces retired. 


5. 


Speed was checked. 


11. 


Bells are ringing. 


6. 


The roof protects. 


12. 


Summer is approaching. 



XoTE TO THE Teacher. — In such examples as the foregoing, 
pupils may be required to add or to reject one modifying word, 
phrase, or clause, and then to show the effect upon the sentence, 
before making any further change. 

Examples : — 
Birds are singing. The happy birds are singing. {Happy describes 

the birds, and the points out happy birds.) 
The happy birds in field and wood are singing. (The phrase, in field 

and wood, tells where the birds are.) 

Exercise 2. 
In the morning, the five boys from Camp Douglas rowed 

the boat rapidly up the lake. 
The five hoys from Camp Douglas rowed the boat rapidly up 

the lake. 
The five hoys from Camp Douglas rowed the hoat rapidly. 
The five hoys from Camp Douglas rowed the hoat. 
The five hoys rowed the hoat. 
The hoys rowed the hoat. 



(a) In the same manner rewrite the following sentences 
so that the thoughts expressed will be more simple. 

(5) Tell, in each instance, what kind of modifying word, 
phrase, or clause you have rejected. 



CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 179 

1. They exchanged a few earnest words before parting. 

2. Her cousin Julia often came from the parsonage to brighten the 

sick-room. 

3. Our men soon became weary of pulling against the strong current. 

4. President Bartlett, of Dartmouth College, became tutor in that 

institution at twenty. 

5. After so long an absence, at last we met again. 

6. The sun, in his cloudless journey, had melted away the thin cover- 

ing of snow from every southern slope. 

7. After turning from the main road up a narrow lane, thickly shaded 

with forest trees, we came in sight of the cottage. 



CXXIV. CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 

A sentence containing but one statement or question is 
called a simple sentence. 

Examples: The night was cold. Was the night cold ? 

Simple sentences may frequently be expanded to con- 
siderable length by the addition of modifiers either to the 
subject, or to the predicate, or to both. 

Example : The night of December 25, 1890, was extremely cold. 

A sentence remains simple so long as it contains but one 
proposition. (See page 17.) 

Two or more independent propositions joined together 
by one or more conjunctions form a compound sentence. 

Example : The way was long and the wind was cold. 

In some compound sentences the conjunction is under- 
stood, but not expressed. 

Example : The curfew tolls the knell of parting day. 

The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, 
The plowman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 



180 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

A sentence containing one independent proposition and 
one or more dependent propositions, or clauses, is called 
a complex sentence. 

Example : She walked in the meadow ivhen the grass was wet with 
dew. (See page 73.) 

One or more of the members of a compound sentence 
may be complex. Such sentences are called compound- 
complex. 

Example : He that hath pity upon the poor lendeth unto the Lord, 
and that which he hath given will he pay him again. 

Exercise. 

(a) Classify the following sentences as simple, com- 
pound, complex, or compound-complex. 

(5) Separate each compound sentence into simple sen- 
tences, and point out the conjunction or conjunctions 
connecting the parts (members). 

(c) Point out the clauses. Tell what they modify, and 
how. 

1. Knowledge comes, but wisdom lingers. 

2. Virtue is clad in flesh and blood. 

3. He that wrestles with us strengthens our nerves and sharpens our 

skill. 

4. 'Tis winter now, but spring will blossom soon, 
And flowers will lean to the embracing air. 

5. 'Tis winter, yet there is no sound, along the air, 

Of winds upon their battle-ground, but gently there 
The snow is falling. 

6. A voice went forth throughout the land, 
And an answering voice replied. 

7. The mouse that hath but one hole is quickly taken. 

8. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 

9. I am dreaming of the firelight, and the rain is slowly falling. 



ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 181 

10. All day she moveth to and fro, and the murmured melody of 

pleasant thoughts springs to her lips. 

11. Descending snows the earth o'erspread, 

Keen blows the northern blast ; 
Condensing clouds scowl overhead, 
The tempest gathers fast. 

12. Speak gently ! 'tis a little thing 

Dropped in the heart's deep well ; 
The good, the joy, that it may bring. 
Eternity shall tell. 

13. He loved to tell long stories about the dark old warriors whose 

portraits looked grimly down from the walls. 



CXXY. ANALYSIS OF SIMPLE SENTENCES. 

• A simple sentence has but one subject and one predi- 
cate, but the subject, or predicate, or both, may be com- 
pound, and may be modified either by words or by phrases. 

Examples : — 

The girls recited their lessons. (Both subject and predicate, simple.) 

The girls and boys recited their lessons. (Subject, compound; predi- 
cate, simple.) 

The girls study and recite their lessons. (Subject, simple ; predi- 
cate, compound.) 

The girls and boys study and recite their lessons. (Both subject and 
predicate, compound.) 

Exercise I. 

(a) In the following simple sentences, point out the 
subjects and predicates, and tell whether they are simple 
or compound. 

(6) Point out the simple subject and the simple predicate 
in each sentence. 

(c) Point out the modifying words and phrases. 



182 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART in. 

1. His neighbors and friends have been very kind to him. 

2. The officer plans skillfully and executes rapidly. 

3. This was once a king, and now is clay. 

4. With this visit to the scene, return all its pleasures and its pains. 

5. Music can noble hints impart, and manage all the man. 

6. Their sins and their iniquities will I remember no more. 

7. Snow and hail, fire and vapor, fulfill His word. 

8. Snowstorms keep a man's body indoors, but bring his mind out. 

9. Moses and Elias came and talked with Jesus. 

10. The purple grape and ripened grain bring rejoicing. 

11. Suddenly the sound of the shrill warwhoop broke the stillness of 

the night. 

12. A statesman of great renown had placed himseK at the head of 

his countrymen, and across the path of tyranny. 

13. Can flattery soothe the dull, cold ear of death ? 



Exercise 2. 
Analyze the following compound sentences. 

1. The singing of the great wood-fires is yet in our ears, and the 

blowing of the gusty wind at the casement will be long remem- 
bered. 

2. Italy bought the Bonaparte papers, and they were deposited in 

the Royal Library of Florence. 

3. In fifteen years this trade had made the man rich, but it should 

have led him to prison. 

4. Each of us sees with his own eyes, and no two pair of eyes are 

alike. 

5. On the lawn, great shrubs of tropic bloom threw a fragrance on 

the moonlit air, and one could hear in the distance the odd, 
oriental cries of the women in their boats. 

As a compound sentence is merely a combination of 
simple sentences or complex sentences, the analysis of a 
compound sentence requires no special attention. Each 
independent proposition forming a part of the compound 
sentence must be analyzed as a simple sentence. 



ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 183 

CXXVI. ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 
Model No. 1 (Clausal, Phrasal, and Verbal). 

We can not perceive that the study of grammar makes 
even the. smallest difference in the speech of people who have 
always lived in good society. 

(1) This is a complex, declarative sentence, — complex 
because it contains one or more clauses, and declarative 
because it asserts a fact. 

(2) The main proposition is. We can perceive^ in which 
the simple predicate is modified by the adverb not. 

(3) This sentence contains two clauses : that the study 
. . . society .^ and who have . . . society. The first is a com- 
plex noun clause used as the object of the verb can per- 
ceive ; the second is an adjective clause modifying the 
noun people. 

The first clause tells what is perceived, and is connected 
with the verb by the conjunction that ; the second clause 
tells the kind of people referred to, and is connected with 
the noun people by the conjunctive pronoun loho. 

(4) The phrases in this sentence are — of grammar., 
adjective, modifying the noun study by telling what study ; 
— in the speech^ adjective, modifying the noun difference^ 
telling in what the difference consists; — of people^ adjective, 
modifying the noun speech., telling what speech; — and in 
good society., adverbial, modifying the verb have lived., by 
telling where the people lived. 

(5) Study is a noun used as the subject of the verb 
makes. 

Smallest is an adjective modifying the noun difference. 
Even is an adverb, modifying the adjective smallest. 
Difference is a noun, object of the verb makes. 



184 ENGLISH GRAMINIAR, PART III. 

Always is an adverb of time modifying the verb have 
lived. 

Grood is an adjective modifying the noun society. 

Model No. 2 (Clausal and Phrasal). 
We can not perceive that the study of grammar makes even 
the smallest difference in the speech of people who have 
always lived in good society. 

(1) This is a complex, declarative sentence. 

(2) The main proposition is, We can perceive. 

(3) CLAUSES. WHAT THEY MODIFY. KINDS. 

that the study . . . society can perceive noun 
who have . . . society people adjective 

(4) PHRASES. s^ WHAT THEY MODIFY. KINDS. 

of grammar study adjective 

in the speech difference adjective 

of people speech adjective 

in good society have lived adverbial 

Exercise I. 

Analyze the following sentences according to model 
No. 1. 

1. As I did not know the exact route, I steered by the lay of the 

land. 

2. Does he fear that he will lose his friend ? 

3. Arts ever followed where Rome's eagles flew. 

4. We gladly welcome April showers 
Because they promise gifts of flowers. 

5. Those who merit praise can bear reproof. 

6. He knows that the world can get on without him. 

7. That you have wronged me doth appear in this. 

8. Plow often have hearts beat in terror 
Over evils that never occurred. 



ANALYSIS OF COMPLEX SENTENCES. 185 



Exercise 2. 

Analyze the following sentences according to model 

No. 2. 

1. Those persons from whom came the loudest complaint were the 

first offenders. 

2. He that shuns the hives because the bees have stings, is not worthy 

of the honeycomb. 

3. The crime of one age has more than once become the glory of the 

ages which followed. 

4. Nature is a kind of enchanted castle in which beauty is impris- 

oned, and her doors are opened only to him who loves that 
which is within. 

5. Providence has taken care that no part of nature shall be left 

unexamined and unreported. 

6. Bend yourself to the task of showing how much you can do. 

7. Good writers are distinguished from bad ones by the superior 

skill which they exhibit in the use of small words. 

8. Blessed is the man that walketh not in the counsel of the ungodly. 

9. Conversation is an art in which a man has all mankind for com- 

petitors. 
10. Color blindness, which may mistake drab for scarlet, is better 

than total blindness, which sees no distinction of color at all. 
IL Courtesy is often sooner found in lowly sheds with smoky rafters 

than in tapestry halls and courts of princes, where it first was 

named. 

12. Knowledge that terminates in curiosity and speculation is inferior 

to that which is useful. 

13. Gold, like the sun, which melts wax and hardens clay, expands 

great souls and contracts bad hearts. 

Note to the Teacher. — Either of the foregoing models may 
be used in the analysis of complex sentences. Model No. 1 should be 
used until the pupils understand clearly the relations which the parts 
of a sentence bear to each other. With advanced pupils, model No. 2 
is sufficiently full. 

After a sentence has been analyzed, a few important words may be 
parsed. (See Lesson LXIIL, page 86.) 



186 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

CXXVn. REVIEW OF XOUNS. 

(Review pages 26-30 and 93-113.) 
Exercise I. 

(a) Define, and give an example of a common noun ; 
a proper noun ; a collective noun. 

(5) How are the plurals of nouns regularly formed? 
Give examples to illustrate. 

(c) What is the rule for forming the plurals of nouns 
ending in y ? Illustrate. 

(c?) What have you learned of nouns whose plurals end 
in ew? Of nouns like/ooit, mouse^ man? 

(e) What feminine terminations are still used in Eng- 
lish? Illustrate. How can you account for the spelling 
of songstress? (See page 102, note.) 

(/) What nouns form their possessive case by the addi- 
tion of an apostrophe and s? What nouns by an apos- 
trophe alone ? Give examples- 
Exercise 2. 

(a) In the following sentences point out the nouns that 
are or may be inflected to express number ; gender ; case. 

(6) Point out the personal pronouns, and give the per- 
son, gender, number, and case of each. 

1. The Swedes, as well as the Swiss, are a patriotic people. 

2. The marchioness was celebrated for her wit and beauty. 

3. Our neighbors' ducks and geese are swimming on the miller's pond. 

4. The cargoes of the sailing craft on these northern waters consist 

chiefly of lumber, ores, wheat, oats, and potatoes. 

5. The Empress's excellences are shown in this, that no one's en- 

deavors go farther than hers for others' good. 

6. We do well to remember what George Eliot tells us in her Adam 

Bede : " The secret of our emotions never lies in the bare 
object, but in its subtle relation to our own past." 



ABSTRACT NOUNS. 187 



CXXVIII. ABSTRACT NOUNS. 

Some common nouns are names of qualities of objects ; 
as, color^ beauty^ ugliness. 

Other common nouns are names of conditions of objects ; 
as, 'Weakness^ weariness.^ happiness. 

All such nouns are names of qualities, conditions, and 
relations that have no real existence separate from objects 
that can be seen or touched. Many of them are names of 
things that can only be thought about. Yet we speak of 
them as if they were real objects like trees, stones, or fruit. 
For instance, we say. His strength is great. The flavor 
is very pleasant. His weight is enormous^ etc. 

Such names are called abstract nouns, because we con- 
sider the qualities, conditions, etc., apart from the things 
to which they belong. 

Exercise I. 

Point out the nouns in the following sentences, and tell 
which are abstract, and why. 

1. Give me neither poverty nor riches. 

2. Honor is the subject of my story. 

3. The phonograph was the invention of a genius. 

4. Diligence wins the prize. 

5. The goodness of God leadeth to repentance. 

6. His absence was caused by an accident. 

7. Perfect love casteth out fear. 

Exercise 2. 
Analyze the following sentences. 

1. Most men are more worn by anxiety than by labor. 

2. Growth and decay are seen on every side. 

3. Faithfulness in service is a proof of noble character. 

4. Of two evils the less is always to be chosen . 



188 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART ni. 



CXXIX. INFLECTION OF NOUNS. 

In Part II. we learned all that there is of inflection in 
nouns. These inflections are shown in the following table : 



SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


FEMININE. 


POSS. SING. 


POSS. PLU. 


boy 


boys 




boy's 


boys' 


church 


churches 




church's 




turkey 


turkeys 




turkey's 


turkeys* 


fly 


flies 




fly's 


flies' 


OX 


oxen 




ox's 


oxen's 


man 


men 


woman 


man's 
woman's 


men's 
women's 


actor 


actors 


actress 


( actor's 
1 actress's 


actors' 
actresses' 


administrator 


administra- 
tors 


administra- 
trix 


administra- 
tor's 


administra- 
tors' 


director 


directors 


directress 


director's 


directors' 



Point out the inflection in each noun in the foregoing 
table, and tell what the inflection indicates. 

Names of inanimate objects, -when not personified, seldom 
take the possessive form. 

Example: The color o/the grass; not, The grass's color. 



Exercise. 

Place in one column the masculine nouns found below ; 
then make a table showing their inflections, as above. 



Lord 


sir 


hero 


ram 


earl 


bullock 


male 


beau 


prince 


duke 


hart 


Francis 


drake 


colt 


swain 


baron 


king 


Charles 


infant 


czar 


tiger 


sloven 


friar 


sultan 


Cornelius 


nephew 


bachelor 


Mr. 


monsieur 


governor 



emperor bridegroom widower master gander shepherd 



ADJECTIVES. 189 

CXXX. ADJECTIVES. 

(Review Lessons LXXXV.-LXXXVII. , pages 119-123.) 

Exercise I. 

This is a very valuable horse. 

(^it) Rewrite the above sentence, using instead of the 
adjective valuable an equivalent adjective phrase. 

(5) Rewrite the sentence, using an equivalent adjective 
clause. 

((?) V^rite the comparison of the following adjectives : 

Valuable, beautiful, ill, many, heavy, young. 

(d) What is meant by comparison? What adjectives 
can not be compared ? 

(e) Write in words 78, 325, 1062, 1532, and 21,875. 

Exercise 2. 

(a) Point out each adjective in the following extract, 
and tell whether it expresses quality, number, or place. 

(h) Classify the adjectives as descriptive or definitive, 
and give reasons for the classification. 

(c) Which of the definitive adjectives are numerals? 
Tell whether the numerals are cardinal or ordinal. 

In his fourth year, Sir Walter Scott was sent to Bath, for the sake 
of its mineral waters. There he attended a dame's school, and received 
his first lessons in reading. He next made some advance at a private 
school kept by a Mr. Leechman, in a small building, now decayed, 
and occupied by a hard-working blacksmith. 

It is almost certain that attendance at his first school in Edinburgh 
was rendered irregular by his delicate health. He entered Eraser's 
High School in the third year; that is, at the middle stage of the 
ordinary curriculum. He was eight years of age — an uncommonly 
early period for a boy to enter the third year of his classical course. 



190 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART Til. 

CXXXI. PERSO:NrAL PRONOUNS. 

(Review Lesson XVIIL-XXIL, pages 32-37.) 

Pronouns enable us to avoid the repetition of nouns. 
In fact, a few pronouns will represent all the nouns in the 
language. The pronoun he will represent any masculine 
noun in the singular number ; she^ any feminine noun in 
the singular number ; they^ any noun in the plural number, 
whether masculine or feminine, etc. 

The pronoun /denotes the speaker, and the pronoun we 
includes the speaker and one or more others for whom 
he speaks. You denotes the person or persons addressed, 
and may refer to one or more than one. 

In the possessive case there are two forms of some of 
the personal pronouns ; as, my and mine^ your and yours^ 
their and theirs^ etc. The first form is used as an adjec- 
tive, with a noun. 

Examples : This is your book. Their advice was not taken. 

The second form is rarely used with a noun, though such 
expressions as Mine eyes have seen the glory^ and Mine 
hour is not yet come, are frequently met with in poetry and' 
in the Bible. (See page 112.) 

The possessive forms mine, thine, ours, yours, his, hers, 
theirs, express ownership and at the same time they have 
the construction of nouns in the nominative or objective 
case. 

Examples : John has my book = John has 7nine. 

Your book is on the table = Yours is on the table. 

Ours, yours, hers, and theirs, are never followed by 
nouns ; but each of these words fills the office of a pro- 
noun in the possessive case and of a noun in the nomina- 
tive or objective. 



PERSONAL VROXOUXS. 191 



Compound Personal Pronouns. 



SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

First Per. myself ourselves 

Second Per. •! ,^ , 

l^ yourself yourselves 



f himself 
Third Per. j herself themselves 

itself 



These forms are used in the nominative and objective 
cases, but not in the possessive. 

Examples : Who would be free, himself must strike the blow. 
Our remedies oft in ourselves do lie. 

Exercise i. 
State in what way — whether as subject, object, or com- 
plement — the nouns represented by the following posses- 
sives are used. 

1. I took theirs. 7. You take mine ; I will take yours. 

2. Mine are coming. 8. Hers is a sweet voice. 

3. He spoke of yours. 9. Thine is the kingdom. 

4. The victory was his. 10. Ours are later than theirs are. 

5. Yours are better than 11. Against his, no counsel shall pre- 

mine. vail. 

6. Theirs is the glory. 12. Mine be a cot beside the hill. 

Exercise 2. 
Fill each blank in the following exercise with an appro- 
priate personal or compound personal pronoun, give its 
case, and tell why that case is required. 

1. and sang a duet. 

2. Wait for James and . 

3. I did the work . 

4. It was that gave John and the alarm. 

5. They will elect Lucy or . 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

6. It was either or William. 

7. I saw the proprietor . 

8. Neither nor May can come. 

9. The chorister expects Fred or to sing the solo. 

10. You heard it. 

11. He prides on his skill. 

12. He keeps an eye on and . 

13. Each time it has been or that won. 

14. The teacher praised my brother John and . 



CXXXII. CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 

(Review Lesson LV., page 75.) 

The words who^ wJiich^ what^ and that are used as con- 
junctive pronouns, as we learned in Part I. 

The word as also is used as a conjunctive pronoun after 
the words such^ many^ and same. 

He received gratefully such help as was offered. 

In this sentence, as is a conjunctive pronoun, the sub- 
ject of was offered. Its antecedent is the noun help. 

No conjunctive pronoun except loho is inflected, and 
luho is inflected for case only. The following are the 
forms of tvho : — 

NOMINATIVE POSSESSIVE OBJECTIVE 

tvho whose whom 

Who is used in speaking of persons, and of objects per- 
sonified. 

Examples: The workman who was injured has fully recovered. 

Now a faint tick was heard below, from the Pendulum, 
who thus spoke. 

Which is used in speaking of lower animals or of things. 

Example: He had wounded a beautiful deer, which lay panting 
at our feet. 



COXJUXCTIVE PRONOUNS. 193 

Which may represent a collection of persons, when no 
special reference is made to the persons composing the 
collection. 

Example : The sixth regiment, n^hich suffered greatly from lack of 
food and clothing, etc. 

Which may also be used to refer to a statement, or to a 
mere name or character. 

Examples: You call me chief, which is proof of my valor. 

The town was called Plymouth, ichich was the name of 
the place in England whence they came. 

That may be used in speaking of either persons or 
things, and must be used when the antecedent refers both 
to persons and to things. 

Examples: The merchant that failed has resumed business. 
The horse and rider that left the village, etc. 

The conjunctive pronoun that is preferred to ivho or 
ichich in the following cases : — 

(1) When the antecedent includes both persons and 
things. 

Example : The ship and passengers that were swallowed by the sea. 

(2) Usually after an adjective in the superlative degree. 

Example : He was the finest scholar of all that attended the school. 

By many writers, that is also preferred to which when 
introducing a restrictive clause, that is, a clause defining 
the modified word. 

Example: Philadelphia is the city that w^as founded by William 
Penn. 

But if the antecedent is preceded by the adjective that^ 
the conjunctive pronoun that should not be used. 

Example: That man who gave you the ticket; not. That man that 
gave you the ticket. 

MET. ENG. GRAM. — 13 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

That^ as a conjunctive pronoun, never follows a preposi- 
tion, but it may be the object of a preposition following it. 

Example: He holds the position that I applied for {better, the 
position /or which I applied). 

Because which and that have no possessive forms, whose 
is sometimes used to refer to things as well as to persons. 
Example : He has written a sentence whose meaning is obscure. 

CXXXIII. CO:t^JUNCTIVE PRONOUN'S (continued). 
Exercise. 

(<7) In the following sentences point out the clauses, 
tell what kind they are, and what they modify. 

(5) Name the conjunctive pronouns, tell why they are 
pronouns, and why conjunctive. 

(c) Give the antecedents of the conjunctive pronouns, 
and the part of speech to which each belongs. 

1. We love those who aid us in gratifying our desires. 

2. A man who is devoid of gratitude can not be a good man. 

3. Wisdom is the habit by which we select right means for right 

ends. 

4. Ignorance and error may arise from our want of information that 

we have no means of obtaining. 

5. All that he does is to complain of those who care for him. 

6. There stood by me this night the angel of God, whose I am, and 

whom I serve. 

7. The shackles ne'er again shall bind 
The arm which now is free. 

8. That plea was one in which Mr. Lincoln made an appeal that 

quite surpassed his usual efforts. 

9. lu all communities there are men who are believed to be honest, 

yet whose word is never taken as authority. 

10. Never leave that till to-morrow which you can do to-day. 

11. We always like those who admire us ; we do not always like those 

whom we admire. 



CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 195 



CXXXTV. CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS {continued). 

Every pronoun represents an antecedent (either ex- 
pressed or understood), and the number and person of the 
pronoun are the same as the number and person of its 
antecedent. Hence, 

A conjunctive pronoun in the nominative case must be 
followed by the same form of the verb that would properly 
follow its antecedent. 

Examples: I (who) am your friend. He (who) is my friend. 
They (who) are my friends. 

Exercise. 

(a) From the parentheses below, choose the proper 
word, and give the reason for your choice. 

(6) Give the construction of each noun and pronoun. 

1. He speaks in words that (burn^ burns). 

2. The horse that you are driving was one of the finest that (was, 

were) offered at the sale. 

3. Mr. S. is one of those restless men that (are, is) always seeking 

a new home. 

4. Riches that (is, are) ill-gotten will be seldom enjoyed. 

5. He w^as the father of all such as (play, plays) on the harp and 

organ. 

6. Such zeal as his father displays in business, Harry shows in study. 

7. He bought such land as I recommended. 

8. Many people live in houses that do not fit them. 

9. We value lightly that which costs us nothing. 

10. The fireplace is a window through which we look out upon other 

scenes. 

11. My pulses, therefore, beat again 

For other friends that once I met ; 
Nor can it suit me to forget 
The mighty hopes that make us men. 

12. He who neglects the present moment throws away all he has. 



196 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 



CXXXV. PERSONAL AND CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS 
CONTRASTED. 

Personal ^ pronouns are so called because they show by 
their form of what grammatical person they are. 

Conjunctive pronouns are so called because they partake 
of the nature of conjunctions and of pronouns. They are 
sometimes called relative pronouns, because they relate to 
an antecedent ; but, as personal pronouns also relate to 
antecedents, the name conjunctive is more distinctive. 

The person and number of a personal pronoun is 
always shown by its form. The pronoun I is always in 
the first person, singular; thou is in the second person, 
singular ; Ae, sAe, and it are in the third person, singular, 
etc. You is always plural, though in common speech it 
has taken the place of thou. 

A verb \vhose subject is a personal pronoun agrees -with that 
pronoun in person and number. 

Unlike the personal pronoun, the person and number of 
a conjunctive pronoun can be determined only by refer- 
ence to its antecedent. Who^ for example, may refer to 
the speaker, to the person addressed, or to the one spoken 
of. It may also refer to one person or to more than one. 

Examples : I loTio am here. You wlio are here. 
He who is here. They who are here. 

A verb wliocse subject is a conjunctive pronoun agrees with 
the antecedent in person and number. 

1 The term personal as applied to pronouns is an unfortunate one, inasmuch 
as pupils are quite likely to assume that certain pronouns are called personal 
because they represent the names of persons. Care should be taken to dis- 
tinguish between the word person, meaning a living human being, and the 
term grammatical person. 



COMPOUND CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 197 

Exercise. 
Point out the pronouns in the following sentences, tell 
whether they are personal or conjunctive, and why ; also 
point out their antecedents. 

1. If the prisoner saw that her visitor bore her no ill-will for the deed 

she had done him, she might open her heart to him. 

2. The parson is not one of those that think they can comfort you 

with chattering, as if folks who stand by and look on know a 
deal better what the trouble is than those who have to bear it. 

3. It is sublime — that sudden pause of a great multitude, which tells 

that one soul moves in them all. 

4. No story is the same to us after a lapse of time ; or rather, we who 

read it are no longer the same interpreters ; and our traveler 
this morning brought with him new thoughts through that gray 
country — thoughts which gave an altered significance to its 
story of the past. 

5. Thy hand hath made our Nation free ; 
To die for her is serving Thee. 

CXXXVI. COMPOUND CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 

By annexing ever or soever to the conjunctive pronouns 
who^ whose ^ whicJi^ and what, we form the compound conjunc- 
tive pronouns whoever^ whichever^ and whatever ; also who- 
soever^ tvhosesoever, ivhatsoever^ and ivhichsoever. 

A compound conjunctive pronoun performs the office of 
a conjunctive pronoun, and also that of its antecedent. 
Whoever studies will learn. 

Whoever studies is the subject of ivill leani. But the 
sentence is equivalent to 

He who studies will learn^ 
in which he is the antecedent of who and the subject of will 
learn. Who is the subject of the verb studies. 

A compound conjunctive pronoun may be equivalent 
to two simple pronouns, each of which is used as an object. 



198 ENGLISH GRAIVIMAR, PART III. 

He must take whatever he likes. 

In this sentence, whatever he likes is the object of must 
take. Substituting that which for whatever^ that is the 
object of must take., and which the object of likes. 

He must take whatever seems best. 

Here whatever seems best is the object of must take. 
Substituting that which for whatever, that is the object of 
must take., and which the subject of the verb seems. 

In a sentence, the conjunctive pronoun what is equiva- 
lent to that which. 

I do not know what you want = I do not know that which 
you want. 

In the former sentence, ivhat you want is the object of 
know., and what is the object of want ; in the latter, that is 
the object of know., and luhich is the object of want. 

The antecedent of what or of whatever is never expressed, 
these pronouns representing, in their compound nature, 
both the antecedent and the pronoun. 

In the sentence. What man has done., man can do., the 
object of can do is the clause, What man has done. Or, 
substituting that which for what, that becomes the object 
of can da, an«d is moditied by the adjective clause, tvhich 
man has done. In this clause, which is the object of ha^ 
done. 

In consequence of this peculiar use of tvhat, it also is 
frequently called a compound conjunctive pronoun. 

What, whose, and which are likewise frequently used as 
adjectives. 

Examples : I do not know ivhat book you want. 
Whose composition is this ? 
Which boy will go? (See next lesson.) 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES. 199 

Exercise. 

Show, as in the foregoing illustrations, the construction 
of each compound conjunctive pronoun in the following 
sentences. 

1. Do what is right. 

2. They wist not what it was. 

3. Take whichever you prefer. 

4. Whatever the council have voted, shall be done. 

5. Whomsoever you send, I will entertain. 

6. What is approved by the multitude is not always just. 

7. Whatsoever is right I will give you. 

8. They condemn whatever I propose. 

9. Here is an account of what was done. 



CXXXVII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS AND INTER- 
ROGATIVE ADJECTIVES. 

The words who (whose^ whom)^ which^ and what^ when 
used in asking questions and not followed by a noun, are 
called interrogative pronouns. 

Examples : Who goes there? Whose is it? Whom did he address? 
Which do you prefer? What will you have? 

Whose^ tuhich, and what^ however, are frequently used 
before nouns in questions. 

Examples: Whose book lies on the table? Which yacht is the 
swiftest? What vessel has just cast anchor? 

When thus used, they are called interrogative adjectives. 
The conjunctive pronouns who (ivhose^ ivhom)^ tvhich^ 
and ivhat^ are used Avhere a question is only implied. 

Examples: I have learned who sent him. I do not know whose 
opinion prevailed. We have decided on whom to 
call. I cannot tell which book he will prefer. No 
one knows ivhat crime he committed. 



200 EXGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

Who and its objective form who77i are the only inter- 
rogative or conjunctive pronouns that any one is likely to 
misuse. 

Examples: I do not know who will finish the work. 

Whom has he met? I do not know whoin he has met. 

Who is always used as a subject, and whom as an object. 

Exercise. 

(a) State whether the interrogative word in each of the 
questions below is an interrogative pronoun or an inter- 
rogative adjective. If an adjective, what noun does it 
limit? If a pronoun, is it a subject or an object? If an 
object, of what verb or preposition is it the object? 

(5) State whether the interrogative word is used in an 
actual or in an implied question. 

1. Who goes there ? 7. What has delayed him ? 

2. Whose knife is that ? 8. What purpose led them ? 

3. Whose knife have you? 9. Whose order did you fill ? 

4. Whom have you seen? 10. What plan did he offer? 

5. Which do you prefer? 11. Whose did you approve ? 

6. What will you have ? 12. Which aim is highest ? 

13. What use have you for the book? 

14. Which boy will do the errand ? 

15. To whom did you bring the bouquet? 

16. To which locksmith did you apply ? 

17. I do not know to what author he referred. 

18. I have heard which candidate you favor. 

19. To whose entreaty he yielded, is no longer a question. 

20. He had forgotten who gave him the information. 

21. I remember for whom the doctor was called. 

22. Consider what sacrifices these pioneers have made. 

23. I told him by whose advice I had come. 

24. We shall learn of whom the band consists. 

25. For what did the people next petition ? 

26. To what business will the man now devote himself ? 

27. In whose behalf they labored we already know. 



ADJECTIVE rROiXOUNS. 201 

CXXXVni. ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

Some adjectives may be used as pronouns. 

Examples: This hook is mine. T^is is my book. 
Some pupils are idle. So?ne are idle. 
Neither way seems pleasant. Neither seems pleasant. 

Such adjectives are called adjective pronouns, or pro- 
nominal adjectives. 

Adjective pronouns may be divided into two classes — 
demonstrative and indefinite. 

The demonstrative pronouns are : — 



SINGULAR. 


PLURAL 


this 


these 


that 


those 



These pronouns point out objects definitely, this and 
these referring to things near at hand, that and those to 
things more distant. 

The most common indefinite pronouns are all, any, each, 
either, neither, few, many, none, one, other, another, some, 
several, such. They point ort objects indefinitely. 

Examples : One hardly knows what to do under the circumstances. 
None so poor as to do him reverence. All is not lost. 

Each, either, and neither are alwaj^s singular. 

Examples : Each of the men is armed. 

Either of them is willing to go. 
Neither of them was asked to go. 

Some, any, and no are variously compounded forming 
nouns and adverbs ; as, somewhere, somewhat, sometimes, 
somebody, something, anything, anybody, nobody. 

Examples: Something is i^icking. I did not see an?/6oG??/. 
Sometimes the roof no fretwork knew. 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART m. 

Some^ as a pronoun, may be either singular or plural. 
When it refers to quantity, it is singular ; when it refers 
to number, it is plural. 

Examples: Some of the snow is very white. (Singular.) 

Some of the garments were moth-eaten. (Plural.) 

One^ other ^ and another are inflected for the possessive 
case. 

Examples : One's prospects may brighten and then fade. 
Others' rights must be respected. 
This child weeps at sight of another's tears. 

Each other and one another imply reciprocal action or 
relation and are called reciprocal pronouns. 

None (no one, not one, not any) is now rarely used as 
an adjective. As a pronoun, it is strictly singular, though 
sometimes used in the plural by good writers. 

Examples : None of them are lost. Through this gate none passes. 

Errors to be avoided in the Use of Pronouns. 

1. We have invited the same speakers that were engaged for the 
former meeting ; not, as were engaged for the former meeting. 

2. The sea-sick traveler has one comfort; namely, his fellow- 
traveler is quite as badly off as he ; not, as Am. 

3. His four boys were named John, William, Thomas, and Robert. 
The last was a graduate of Harvard ; not, The latter was a graduate of 
Harvard. Latter, a comparative, properly refers to one of only two. 

4. As the prize was offered to the pupil who passed the best exami- 
nation, each had a chance ; not, all had a chance. 

The possessive case, rather than the objective, should 
precede the verbal noun in such examples as the fol- 
lowing : — 

5. I call to mind his running very rapidly; not. Mm running very 
rapidly. 

6. His absence in Europe prevented their seeing him again ; not, 
them seeing him again. 



CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 203 



Exercise. 

(«) Point out the pronouns in the following sentences, 
tell what kind they are, and name their antecedents. 

(5) Name the pronominal adjectives, tell what kind 
they are, and what they modify. 

1. One might suggest much on a topic so fruitful as that. 

2. These pupils are more studious than those. 

3. The former have the higher satisfaction. 

4. Many of his plans, as well as of our own, have failed. 

5. Several answered cheerfully ; some murmured ; a few were silent. 

6. Either is disagreeable ; both together are unbearable. 

7. Another looked here for fruit, and found none. 

8. Some put the bliss in action, some in ease. 

9. Did he sell both, or neither, of the books ? 

10. They rose one (rose) after another. 

11. Tell it not to any in the town. 

12. From the rising of the sun to the going down of the same. 

13. He shall come to his end, and none shall help him. 

14. After certain years, the former shall come with great riches. 

15. Each of yours is good, but neither of mine is. 



CXXXIX. CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 
Exercise I. 

(a) Name each clause below as adjective or adverbial, 
tell what it modifies, and give the name and purpose of 
the modifier in Italics. 

(5) Each Italicized adverb below is the equivalent of 
what phrase or phrases? 

(c) Point out the connective in each sentence. 

1. We visited the field on which the great oaks stood. 

2. We visited the field whei^e the great oaks stood. 

3. Jason found his glove in the place in which he dropped it. 

4. Jason found his glove whei'e he dropped it. 

5. Foster threw the weight as you would throw a ball. 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

6. The athlete threw the cannon ball with the ease with lohich you 

would throw a baseball. 

7. These immigrants suffered thi-ough the time during which the 

drought continued. 

8. They suffered while the drought lasted. 

9. The captain will be free at the time at ivhich navigation closes. 

10. He will be free when navigation closes. 

11. I do not know the place/ram which he came. 

12. I do not know whence he came. 

13. I stood on the spot whei^e Becket was killed. 

14. Go ivhere glory waits you. 

Words that perform, at the same time, the office of a 
conjunction and of an adverb are conjunctive adverbs. The 
following list comprises those most frequently used: after, 
as, before, since, till, until, ivhen, where, while. 

Connectives that join terms of unequal rank are subordi- 
nate connectives. As a clause is always a dependent prop- 
osition, the word that connects a clause with the main 
proposition of the sentence is a subordinate connective. 

In the foregoing exercise, you may see that Avhenever 
the Italicized adverb displaces two phrases, one of these 
contains a conjunctive pronoun and the other its antece- 
dent. The phrase containing the pronoun always modifies 
the verb in the clause. 

(c?) Why is only one phrase displaced by ivhere in the 
second sentence? Why two by where in the fourth? 

In sentences like the following. Can you tell me luhen 
you will do the work? when is equivalent to the time at 
which, and the sentence is equivalent to. 

Can you tell me the time at luhich you ivill do the work ? 

In this sentence, time is the object of the verb tell, and is 
modified by the adjective clause which follows. In the 
clause, at which (time) is an adverbial pln-ase modifying 
the verb luill do. 



ANALYSTS. 205 

Exercise 2. 
Substitute phrases for the adverbs below. 

1. There is society where none intrudes. 

2. I saw the house where Shakespeare was born. 

3. When friendships are real, they are not glass threads. 

4. Some eyes may see the haven, where others see only the storm. 

5. Have you learned when the steamer will sail ? 

G. He communed with himself as he went on his way. 

7. When the scorner is punished, the simple is made wise. 

8. We know not whither thou goest. 

9. These immigrants will return whence they came. 

10. The colonel led his regiment precisely as he was ordered. 

11. Can you tell me when you planted this elm? 

CXL. ANALYSIS. 

Exercise. 

In each of the following sentences point out (a) the 
unmodified subject, (b) the unmodified predicate, (c) the 
complement, (c?) the copula, and (e) the modifiers and 
their uses. 

1. Paul Revere was an American patriot. 

2. The Muses were the goddesses of Art. 

3. James Russell Lowell was a resident of Cambridge. 

4. The advance line stood firm. 

5. The excitement grows intense. 

6. These three young men were classmates. 

7. He was a blacksmith before he became a clergyman. 

8. This man has been the gatekeeper for several years. 

9. Yon gray lines are messages of day. 

10. This statement holds good. 

11. Self-confidence may be a source of weakness. 

12. Homer and Euripides were famous Greek poets. 

13. The sisters' farewell was touchingly tender. 

14. Regular exercise was the origin and secret of his health. 

15. The little girl appeared peevish. 



206 ENGLISH GRAINBIAK, PART HI. 

CXLI. PHRASES. 

We have already studied in Part I. adjective and adverb 
phrases made by combining prepositions with nouns. 

Example: The soldier unfolded the flag at the command of the 
captain. 

(1) As adjectives, phrases sometimes form the comple- 
ments of copula verbs. 

Examples: It seems of no value (valueless). 
The vessels were of oak (oaken). 

(2) Phrases containing verbals are often used as adjec- 
tives or nouns. 

My sons enjoy rowing on the lake. 

A message ivas received summoning Mm to the castle. 

In the first sentence, roiving on the lake is a noun phrase, 
object of enjoy. In the second, summoning . . . castle is 
an adjective phrase, modifying message. 

Such phrases may themselves be analyzed. Thus, the 
verbal noun rowing is the direct object of enjoy ^ and is 
modified by the adverbial phrase on the lake. The verbal 
adjective summoning modifies message as an adjective ; and, 
as a verb, is modified (1) by the object him, and (2) by 
the adverbial phrase to the castle. 

Of making many hooks, there is no end. 

Of making many hooks is an adjective phrase modifying 
the noun end. The verbal noun making is the object of 
the preposition of ; as a verb it takes the object hooks. 

(3) The infinitive phrase may be used — 
(«) As a noun : — 

Example: Dare /o f?<9 right. (Object of the verb c?are.) 

(])) As an adjective : — 

Example : I have nothing to do. (Modifier of the noun nothing.) 



PHRASES. 207 

(<?) As an adverb : — 

Example : He is eager to go, but is too feeble to walk. (Modifiers of 
adjectives.) (See page 229.) 

(4) A noun or a pronoun is frequently so combined 
with a participle as to form an adverbial phrase which 
expresses cause. 

Examples : The teacher being absent, the school was dismissed. 

The fort having been taken, the order for reinforce- 
ments was countermanded. 

Nouns and pronouns joined •with participles to form ad- 
verbial phrases are said to be used absolutely. 

Such phrases, however, are substitutes for clauses that 
modify the verb in the main proposition. 

Example : The teacher being absent, the school was dismissed = The 
school was dismissed because the teacher ivas absent. 

(5) Nouns are frequently used in abridged adverbial 
phrases to express when^ how., where, how much., how far, 
etc. (See page 66.} 

Examples: An army twenty thousand strong. A castle five cen- 
turies old. All day we waited. Home they brought 
her warrior dead. You came the nearest loag. 



Exercise. 

The law is made to protect the innocent hy pwnishing the 
guilty. 

In this sentence, to protect the innocent is an adverbial 
phrase modifying the verb is made. It is introduced by 
the verbal noun to protect, denoting purpose. 



208 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART ITT. 

By punishing the guilty is also an adverbial phrase, 
modifying to protect. It is introduced by the preposition 
5?/, followed by the verbal noun punishing. 



Point out the phrases in the sentences below. Tell 
what kind each is, and what it modifies, and name the part 
of speech by which it is introduced. 

1. Unable to use the oars, he drifted through the night. 

2. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush. 

3. The poet scorns to mend his verse. 

4. The wall was of jasper. 

5. To draw true beauty shows a master hand. 

6. In cheapening of goods lies a threat toward the wage-earner. 

7. Thrice promoted for his bravery, he is now a brigadier. 

8. He now takes on him to reform the world. 

9. To threaten me with death is to offend thy lungs. 

10. The floor was of sand like [to] the mountain drift. 

11. They deserve to perish. 

12. The enemy, routed at all points, gave up the contest. 

13. The birds, singing about me, awoke memories of childhood. 

14. Peace seemed to reign upon earth. 

15. Kept in a maze by her fear, she had not stirred. 

16. The mountain in full view is Monadnock. 

17. Matter of importance has come to light. 

18. He fears to give a farthing to the poor. 

19. Giving to the poor is lending to the Lord. 

20. The mountain-wall is black against the east ; 
There is no dew, no sound of bird or beast; 
The air is chilled with altitude and night; 

The dawn is near, and silence, like a queen, 
Sits mid the deserts, waiting for the light 
To touch with splendor all the arid scene. 

21. Capt. K , who paddled and sailed, in a frail canoe, from 

St. Johnsbury to Florida, has written about cruising among the 
sunny islands of the west coast of the Peninsular State. 

22. Florence is haunted with the ghosts of great memories. 



NOUN CLAUSES. 209 



CXLII. NOUN CLAUSES. 

(1) That Columbus was shamefully treated^ is certain. 
What is certain? What, then, is the subject of the 

sentence ? 

(2) Our hope is that the Union will he perpetual. 
What is the complement of the copula? 

(3) General Grrant knew that the enemy must soon sur- 

render. 
Point out the object of the verb kneiv. 

(4) The news that our troops had won at Saratoga., gave us 

fresh courage. 
Point out the appositive. 

In the foregoing sentences, we see a clause used in four 
different ways, — as a subject, as a complement, as an ob- 
ject, and as an appositive, — the four ways in which a 
noun (or pronoun) is used. Clauses thus used are called 
noun clauses (or substantive clauses). 

Exercise I. 

Point out the clauses below, and show how each is 
used. 

1. That serious mistakes have been made, is not doubted. 

2. His neighbors do not believe that he will accept. 

3. The report that some have failed, does not deter us. 

4. The truth is, that they were faint-hearted. 

5. That the earth is round, was not then surmised. 

6. Have you heard that the expedition has failed? 

7. That the ignorant are alloM^ed to vote, is a menace to our nation. 

8. That we shall die, we know. 

9. Who gives liimseK with his alms feeds three. 

MET. ENCr. GKAM. 14 



210 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART HI. 

10. The assertion, that some of our immigrants are felons, is stoutly 

maintained. 

11. The committee believe that this mishap arose from a laudable 

motive. 

12. Next came the cheering report, that ample funds had been pledged. 

13. The expectation now is, that each harvest will exceed that of the 

previous year. 

14. That the finest railway station in the world is in India, you will 

be slow to believe. 

Very often, sentences like several of the foregoing are 
introduced by the pronoun it ; as, 

It was not believed that the enemy had withdrawn. 

Evidently, the real subject here is the noun clause intro- 
duced by the word that. It^ the apparent subject, serves 
merely to introduce the predicate and give it a prominent 
place. So considered, it is called an expletive, and the 
clause is an appositive. 

Exercise 2. 

(a) Rewrite five or more of the sentences in Exercise 1, 
beginning each new sentence with the word it. Do not 
change the meaning. 

(6) Point out the office of each noun clause in your new 
sentences. 

CXLin. NOUN CLAUSES {continued). 

Exercise. 

Show the construction, i.e. the office, of each noun clause 
in the sentences below. 

1. Do you know who are coming? 

2. Which man shall receive the contract, is undecided. 

3. All are asking from what friend this munificent gift came. 

4. How my canary escaped, puzzles me. 

5. It does not yet appear where we shall lodge. 



NOUN CLAUSES. 211 

6. I will not say when you may have my reply. 

7. On whom he relies for aid,'even his brother does not know. 

8. Whether the rate may be lessened, does not now concern us. 

9. By what route we shall go, gives cause for debate. 

10. It is not known on whose advice he acted. 

11. Whither I go, ye know, and the way ye know. 

12. Thou canst not tell whence it cometh and whither it goeth. 

13. Archly the maiden smiled, and, with eyes overrunning with 

laughter, 
Said, in a tremulous tone, "Why don't you speak for yourself, 
John ? " 

14. Priscilla asked John Alden why he did not speak for himself. 

Nos. 13 and 14 show that both the direct and the indi- 
rect quotation afford examples of noun clauses. 

With the exception of the word that^ the words we have 
thus far seen used to introduce noun clauses are (or may 
be) used in asking questions. They are of two classes : 

(1) Pronouns — who (whose^ wliom)^ tvhich^ ivhat (whether^~). 

(2) Adv^erbs — when^ where^ hoiv^ why^ whither^ whence. 



CXLIV. NOUN CLAUSES {continued), 

(1) I will remember that. 

(2) I will remember that which you say. 

(3) I will remember what you say. 

In (1), what part of speech is that ? What is its syn- 
tax? (i.e. what is its construction, or how is it used in 
the sentence?) 

In (2), what part of speech is that ? What is its syn- 
tax? How is that modified? What is the complete object 
of the verb remember f What is the object of say ? 

1 Whether was originally a pronoun ; as in, " Whether is greater, the gold 
or the temple ? " It is now used only as a conjunction. 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

Is the thought in (3) the same as in (2) ? What is the 
object of remember ? of say? 

It is plain that in (2) we have an adjective clause mod- 
ifying the direct object that. But in (3), as the word 
what has no antecedent, the verb remember has, as its 
object, the noun clause what you say ; and the verb say 
has, as its object, the pronoun what. 



Exercise. 

Analyze each of the following sentences, show the office 
of each clause, and point out the object of each transitive 
verb in the active voice. 

f the statement. 

1. James denies \ that which Peter affirms. 

[ what Peter affirms. 
f everything. 

2. The credulous believe j all that is said. 

[ whatever is said. 

{reputable things, 
things which are reputable, 
whatsoever things are of good report. 
ihis duty, 
those things which he promises, 
whatsoever he promises, 
f trifles. 
5. The old man dotes on \ all that his son has done. 
[ whatever his son has done. 
( All that ) 
^- 1 Whatever f ^^ ^^^^ ^^ §'^'^^^^^' 
^ J The one that | , ^ .„ 

^- 1 Whichever \ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^ ^^^^ ^"'^P*' 
He who 



Whoever \ confesses is forgiven, 

He who I 

■yrr, y steals my purse, steals trash. 



NOUN CLAUSES. 213 



CXLV. NOUN CLAUSES (continued). 

A noun clause may be introduced — 

(1) By the subordinate conjunction that or ivhether. 

Examples: That^ success depends upon industry, is generally 
admitted. 
Whether the enemy will fight or surrender, is now to 
be proved. 

Such sentences are often arranged as follows : — 

Examples: It is generally admitted that success depends upon 
industry. 
It is now to be proved whether the enemy will fight or 
surrender. 

In these and similar sentences, the pronoun it is merely 
a substitute for the real subject, which appears later in the 
sentence, and that^ as before, introduces the clause. This 
arrangement adds to the force of the sentence by placing 
the predicate at the beginning. (See page 210.) 

(2) By the conjunctive pronoun what. 

Example : Each became ivhat he most desired. 

(3) By a compound conjunctive pronoun. 
Example : Whoever will, may come. 

(4) By the interrogative pronouns loho^ ivhich, and what. 
Examjile : I asked tvhat he wanted. 

(5) By the conjunctive adverbs when^ where, tvhence, etc. 

Examples: I do not know when the examination will come. 
Ye both know me, and ye know lohence I am. 

1 The -word that, in sentences like the first example above, is usually called 
a conjunction, though it would he difiicult to tell what it connects. It is 
called by some grammarians a sentence article. 



214 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART HI. 

A noun clause may be used — 

(1) As the subject of a sentence. 

Example : That you have wronged me doth appear in this. 

(2) As the object of a transitive verb. 

Example : He did not find what he sought. 

(3) As the object of a preposition. 
Example : I will reflect on what you have said. 

(4) As a complement of the verb he. 
Example : Things are not what they seem. 

(5) As an appositive. 

Example : The president made proclamation that the slaves should 
be set free. 

Exercise. 

When will the steamer sail ? 

(1) Subject — When the steamer will sail is not known. 

(2) Complement — The question is, When will the 
steamer sail ? 

(3) Appositive — The question, When Avill the steamer 
sail? is unanswered. 

(4) Object — The owners know when the steamer will 
sail. 

(a) Analyze each of the following sentences. 

(6) Use each sentence as a noun clause in the four 
ways just indicated. 

1. Who have engaged passage? 

2. Whose goods have been refused ? 

3. Whom will this delay most injure ? 

4. Which course has been chosen ? 

5. AVhat has been gained? 



REVIEW OF CLAUSES. 215 

6. Where will she discharge her cargo ? 

7. Whither is she bound ? 

8. AVhence will the silks be brought? 

9. How has the news been spread ? 

10. W^hy is the steamer detained ? 

11. Wherefore were the facts concealed? 

The interrogatives whose, whom, which, what, and how, 
may each form a part of a phrase. 

Examples : In whose favor was the decision ? 
By whom were you delayed ? 
For how many days was the boat chartered ? 
To what purpose is this waste ? 

CXLVI. REVIEW OF CLAUSES. 

Exercise. 

In the following sentences, point out the clauses, tell 
what kind they are, and how each is used. 

1. The farmer knows that he must sow. 

2. The woman who is leading the child is very poor. 

3. I heard Barrett when he played in New York. 

4. That he is improving is certain. 

5. I found the book where you left it. 

6. My fervent wish is that your son may recover. 

7. The preacher spoke of the harm which one cruel word may do. 

8. Do you know where I can find the book ? 

9. Did he think how quickly his enemy would discover him? 
10. Did you see where I put my knife ? 

A clause is usually connected with the rest of the sen- 
tence by some conjunctive word. This conjunctive word 
may be a conjunction, as in the first sentence above ; a con- 
junctive pronoun, as in the second sentence ; or a conjunc- 
tive adverb, as in the third sentence. 

In such sentences as the first and sixth, that is usually 
called a conjunction, but it is rather a demonstrative 
pronoun representing the clause that follows. 



216 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART TIL 

CXLVIL RESTRICTIVE AND NON-RESTRICTIVE 
CLAUSES. 

Last term xve read the hook that you reco7nmended. 
Last term we read '-'•Marmion^^' which charmed us. 

If you examine the two sentences above, you will see 
that both are complex in form. In the first sentence, 
however, the clause that you recommended restricts the 
meaning of the noun hook to a particular book. It was 
the book that you recommended. Such clauses are called 
restrictive. 

In the second sentence, the noun Marmion itself defines 
exactly what book was read. No Avord or clause is needed 
to make the thought clearer. The statement that follows, 
namely, ivhich charmed us^ merely adds another thought to 
the one already expressed, and the word which might be 
replaced by the words and it without changing the mean- 
ing of the sentence. 

Such a statement, though introduced by a conjunctive 
pronoun, is not strictly a clause ; it is not used as a part 
of speech, but is coordinate with the main proposition. 

Non-restrictive clauses should be separated from the rest 
of a sentence by a comma or by commas. Restrictive clauses 
are not often thus separated. 

Exercise. 

(rt) Analyze and punctuate the following sentences. 
The first four sentences are correctly punctuated. 

(5) Give the reason for using or not using the comma 
before the adjective clauses. 

1. Last evening I heard Patti, whose return to America has been 

so warmly welcomed. 

2. I have now heard one of the finest vocalists that have ever visited 

our city. 



AUXILIARIES. 217 

3. My uncle's partner was a member of the 51st Congress, which 

expired March 4, 1891. 

4. Yonder structure was built for a barrack, which accounts for its 

peculiar form, 
o. Proofs of a Power above us are furnished by man's physical form 

which is wrought with a skill that no human power can rival. 
(3, The light fell with a soft entrancement on Newstead Abbey 

which was the poet Bjtou's home. 

7. I will seek the beauty that God has hid in the winter landscape. 

8. In Cambridge we next visited the Washington Elm beneath 

whose shade the Father of his Country assumed command of 
the American forces. 

9. There is always hope for a man who loves any living creature. 

10. Frame your mind for merriment which bars a thousand harms. 

11. Yesterday I met an old pupil whom T failed to i-ecognize. 



CXLVIII. AUXILIARIES. 

(Review Lesson CVL, page 156.) 

Verbs, in English, have but few forms, or inflections. 
None have more than five in common use, many have but 
four, and a few have only two. 

In consequence of this lack of inflection in verbs, it be- 
comes necessary to call in the help of other Avords to ex- 
press ideas which, in some languages, are expressed by 
inflections. These helping words, or auxiliaries, as they are 
called, are but few in number, but they are in almost con- 
stant use. 

The verb with which the auxiliary is combined is usually 
called the principal verb. 

The auxiliaries are — 

(1) Do (does, did), shall, will, may, can, must, might, could, would, 

should. 

(2) Have (has, had). 

(3) Be (is, am, are, was, were, being, been). 



218 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

These auxiliaries, when combined with verb forms, make 
verb-phrases. 

Examples: He does give. I will go. The child has written the 
exercise. The museum will he opened. Helen can 
speak French. He had been wounded. 





Exercise. 






PRESENT 


PAST 


IMP. PART. 


PERF. PART. 


go goes 


went 


going 


gone 


write writes 


wrote 


writing 


written 


speak speaks 


spoke 


speaking 


spoken 



The usual forms that a verb may have are represented 
above by the inflection of the verbs go^ write, speak. 

(joi) With which of the five verb forms above may the 
auxiliaries marked (1) be used? 

(5) With which of the five verb forms may the auxil- 
iaries marked (2) be used? 

(c) With which may the auxiliaries marked (3) be 
used ? 

(c?) How is the progressive form of the verb made? 
How is the passive form made ? 

CXLIX. AUXILIARIES {continued). 

The auxiliaries in the list marked (1) on page 217, 
when combined in verb-phrases, are the real verbs ; and 
the words with which they are combined are infinitives. 

The to which usually precedes the infinitive is omitted 
after an auxiliary. 

Examples: I will (am determined to) go. 

He must (is compelled to) work. 



AUXILIARIES. 219 

We omit the to before the infinitive in many other cases 
so familiar that the omissions give no offense. 

Examples: The driver made the horse (to) run. The teacher 
bade the child (to) go. 

Have and he^ Avith their inflected forms, when combined 
as auxiliaries in verb-phrases, are also the real verbs, and 
the participles with which they are combined are verbal 
adjectives. (See page 131.) 

As all verb-phrases are used in consequence of a lack of 
inflection in what has been called the principal verb, the 
whole phrase is looked upon as the verb. 

Do (does^ did)^ have (Jias^ had}^ will^ and he (is^ am, are^ 
was, ivere) are also used as principal verbs. 

Examples : The boy will do his work well. The clerk has a good 
situation, and has always had the confidence of his 
employer. The childless merchant willed his prop- 
erty to his clerk. The flowers are beautiful. 

Shall and will are used with the root infinitive to express 
future time. (See page 129.) 

Example : I shall go to-morrow. 

The auxiliaries ma?/, can, must, might, could, woidd, and 
should, and sometimes the auxiliaries shall and ivill, do not 
indicate the time of the action, but rather liberty, possi- 
bility, obligation, power, etc., with only an implied refer- 
ence to time. (See Lesson CLI.) 

Examples : 
He Jiiay go — to-day, to-morrow, or next week. 
He 7night go now, if he chose ; but he will not go until to-morrow. 
I will take the order now, unless you prefer that I shall wait. 

The auxiliaries mat/, can, must, might, could, ivould, should, 
combined with the infinitive, form potential^ verb-phrases. 

1 Potential means poiverful, possible. Potential verb-phrases are those 
that express 2)0wer, 2)ossibility, obligation, etc. 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

CL. AUXILIARIES {continued). 

Exercise. 

Fill the blanks below with one of the forms of some 
verb ; give all the forms of the verb you use ; and state 
which form (whether root, imperfect participle, or perfect 
participle) you have used in the sentence. 

1. I do to my friend often. 

2. He has great pains with his exercise. 

3. I am sure you will to do your best. 

4. They did though they promised to remember. 

5. Had he to you about the matter ? 

6. Shall I this book on your desk ? 

7. We had the horse too rapidly. 

8. They have never finer roses. 

9. The robin has away. 

10. He w^ill have the sled to the summit. 

11. The train was rapidly. 

12. If the vessel be , the merchant will be ruined. 

13. Whether the battle be or , more troops must be raised. 

Having tried to use each auxiliary with all the forms of 
the verb, you have without doubt learned: — 

(1) That all the auxiliaries except have and he may 
properly be used with the root of the verb, and Avith no 
other form. 

(2) That the auxiliary have cannot be used with any 
form except the perfect participle. 

(3) That he may be used with either participle, but 
with no other form. 

Being^ used with a perfect participle of a transitive 

1 The fashion of using the forms of the verb he as auxiliaries to the participle 
heiny has grown up in times comparatively modern. This fashion, though at 
first strongly resisted by scholars, seems bound to prevail. Expressions like 
the following are now quite common: The houses loere being built, The ivork 



POTENTIAL VERB-PHRASES. 221 

verb., forms a passive participle, or passive verbal adjective ; 

as, The letter is being written. 

(For the formation of the progressive and passive forms, 
see pages 131, 160.) 

CLI. POTENTIAL VERB-PHRASES. 

Potential verb-phrases express action, being, or state, as 
possible, necessary, obligatory, etc. 

In these verb-phrases, the infinitive names the action, 
being, or state, and the auxiliary expresses the power, will, 
or obligation of some one or some thing represented by the 
subject. 

Annie can do the work very quickly. 

In this sentence, the infinitive do names the act (doing). 
The auxiliary can expresses the fact that Annie is able to 
do the work. 

Annie should do the icork before breakfast. 

Here should expresses the obligation resting on Annie. 

Ca7i and could express po^ver ; may and might express 
possibility or liberty ; must expresses necessity ; would may 
express inclination; and should may express obligation. 

Examples : The merchant tvould gladly promote this clerk. 
Children should obey their parents. 

Potential verb-phrases may be used in asking questions. 

Examples : May I take your book ? 

Could we reach the summit? 

The auxiliaries may^ can^ must, might., could., would, and 
shoidd cannot be assigned to tenses, for they seldom indi- 
cate the time of an action ; the time, when not left indefi- 

Is being done. The old form used in expressing the same idea was, The houses 
loere a-huilding , The vjork is a-doing. In these sentences, a has the force of 
a preposition. 



222 ENGLISH GRAMJMAR, PART HI. 

nite, is usually determined by some modifying word or 
phrase, either expressed or implied. 

Examples : I may go to-morrow. 

He might pay his debts in a year [if he chose]. 

The auxiliary do indicates either present or indefinite 
time ; did^ past time ; shall and ivill^ future time, or pres- 
ent determination to perform a future action. 

Example : I loill learn his address. 

All potential verb-phrases may be so used as to imply 
either present or future time. Would and could are some- 
times used in expressing a past action. 

Example : He would go, and I could not prevent it. 

As I shall implies mere futurity, while you shall at once 
suggests obligation, so I should (the past of shall) usually 
differs from yo\i should. 

Examples: I should like to go. He should go at once. 

Like change, but in reverse order, is seen when we com- 
pare the forms I will and you will; I would and you would. 
Examples: I wow?c? try at all events. Tl^owZfi? you do this? 

CLII. REVIEW OF TENSES. 

(Review Lessons LXXXIX.-XCII., pages 125-130.) 

(1) What is the meaning of the word tense P What 
are the three principal divisions of time ? 

(2) What form of the verb expresses present or indefi- 
nite time ? 

(3) How is past time expressed by the verb? 

(4) What is a regular verb ? An irregular verb ? 

(5) Is future time expressed by an inflection of a verb 
or by an auxiliary ? If by the latter, what auxiliaries are 
used for that purpose ? 



PERFECT TENSES. 223 

Exercise, 
(a) Point out the verbs. Tell whether regular or 
irregular. (6) Give the tense, and tell whether it is indi- 
cated by an inflection or by an auxiliary. 

1. Worthiest poets 

Shun common and plebeian forms of speech. 

2. Joy is wont to overflow, but grief shrinks back to its sources. 
8. She became more religious without becoming less worldly. 

4. In sorrow sweetest things will grow. 
.5. The wind bloweth where it listeth. 

6. All the crimson changed into deep orange o'er the sea. 

7. The path by which we twain did go, 
Through four sweet years arose and fell. 

8. The house leaned away from the street as if disdainful of our age. 

9. The results do not add to the sum total of human knowledge. 
10. Law wears iron shoes, and cares not where it steps. 

CLIII. PERFECT TENSES. 

We have learned that verbs are inflected ; that the root 
of the verb expresses sometimes present and sometimes 
indefinite time ; that an inflection of the root indicates past 
time ; and that to express future time we use the auxiliary 
shall or will before the root of the verb. 

Present, ivalk ; past, walked; future, shall or will ivalk. 

There are three verb-phrases, called perfect tenses, that 
must now be studied. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

When we wish to assert an action as completed in 
present time (to-day, this week, this year), we use the aux- 
iliary have (or has') before the perfect participle of the verb. 

Examples : I have been to New York this week. 

The boy has learned his lessons well to-day. 



224 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

The expressions I have been to New York last tveek^ or 
The hoy has learned his lessons well yesterday^ are evidently 
incorrect. Why? 

The verb-phrase formed by combining the auxiliary 
have (or has) with the perfect participle of some verb is 
the present perfect tense of the verb. 

The term present perfect may be taken as indicating two 
things; viz. (1) a present period ^ of time (in which the 
action has taken place), and (2) perfect or completed 
action. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

When we wish to express an action as completed at or 
before a past time (mentioned or implied), we use the 
auxiliary had with the perfect participle of some verb. 
This verb-phrase is called the past perfect tense of the verb. 

Exa7nples : I had eaten my dinner before the clock struck one. 
T had been at home half an horn* when he came. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

To express an action as completed at some future time 
mentioned, we use the auxiliaries shall have or tvill have 
with the perfect participle of a verb. This verb-phrase is 
the future perfect tense of the verb. 

Example: He will have finished his dinner before you arrive. 

Notice that the perfect tenses of a verb are formed by 
combining its perfect participle with the primary tenses of 
have. 

Examples: Present Perfect. \\\?^Ne finished. 
Past Perfect. I \\?idi finished. 

Future Perfect. I shall have finished. 

1 A period of time not iiicludini> the present moment is not a present 
period; and a period including this moment is a present period, though 
it may cover years or centuries ; as, //t«ye lived here six years. (A present 
period.) I went this mornuiff. (A past period.) 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 225 



Exercise. 

(rt) Give the entire subject and the entire predicate of 
each sentence below. 

(6) Point out each verb-phrase, name its tense, and tell 
how it- is formed. 

1 . Soon our places in the school will have been taken by others. 

2. The songsters of the air have flown to warmer climes. 

3. The telescope has ah-eady revealed hundreds of asteroids. 

4. At the close of the year 1800, not one asteroid had been discovered. 

5. By midsummer, the channel of this river will have changed. 

6. These pioneers have engaged in a comliat with poverty. 

7. The year now closing has been one of almost universal peace. 

8. Hast thou entered into the treasures of the snow ? 

9. In 1788, the decree for Voltaire's banishment had not been canceled. 

10. Before the springtime, some sad facts M'ill have been forced upon 

our minds. 

11. Then Time shall have sundered shell from pearl. 

12. Explorations in Assyria, Palestine, and Egypt have thrown mar- 

velous light upon the history of the ancient world. 



CLTV. SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

(Review Lesson CV., page 154.) 

There is another mode that is worthy of stud}^ though 
it seems gradually to be going out of use. This mode is 
found only in subjoined dependent propositions, and hence 
is called subjunctive. It has only three tenses ; viz. pres- 
ent, past, and past perfect. 

The subjunctive mode is used (1) to denote a contin- 
gency ; as, If he ask a j^ardon, it will be granted. (2) To 
express a wish ; as, Would we were at our journey's end. 
(3) To express an unreal condition ; as. Had the leader been 
present, we should not have been defeated. 

MET. ENG. GRAM. — 15 



226 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 



The clause containing the subjunctive is usually intro- 
duced by one of the following conjunctions; if^ though^ 
unless^ except^ lest, etc. 



Peculiarities of the Subjunctive. 

Although the subjunctive mode has no verb form that is 
not used in other modes, yet it uses the two verbs be and 
were in a peculiar way. If we put the conjugations of the 
verb be in the two simple tenses of the indicative and of 
the subjunctive mode side by side, this difference will at 
once appear. 





Present 


Tense. 




SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 


licative. 


Subjunctive. 


Indicative. 


Subjunctive. 


I am 


If I be 


If we are 


If we be 


you are 


If you be 


K you are 


If you be 


he is 


If he be 


If they are 


If they be 



Past Tense. 

If I was If I were If we were If we were 

If you were If you were If you were If you were 
If he was If he were If they were If they were 

These are the only peculiarities shown by the subjunc- 
tive, except that the -s form gives place to the root of the 
verb; as, 

If the performance prove (not proves') interesting, I shall 

remain. 

In the subjunctive, be is called a form of the present 
tense, and were a form of the past. But notice the time im- 
plied by each when in use, as in the sentences following. 

If the weather be fine (to-morroiv)^ the company will be large. 

Here be, though present in form, expresses future time. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 227 

If the weather were fine (to-day)^ the ship would sail. 

In this sentence ivere is past in form, but expresses pres- 
ent time. In both examples the time indicated by the 
verb form differs from its real meaning. 

Notice that in the past tense the supposition is opposed 
to the fact. If the weather were fine implies that it is not. 

The past perfect subjunctive is the same in form as the 
past perfect indicative, but the same implied denial is seen 
as in the past subjunctive. 

Examples: If I had been prudent (yesterday), I should have taken 
a carriage. (I was not prudent.) 
Had I not foreseen failure, I should have joined the 
expedition. (I did foresee failure.) 

Notice that the past perfect tense of this verb expresses 
past time. 

Except in expressing a wish the subjunctive clause 
states the condition on which the main assertion rests, 
though the real meaning of the subjoined clause is often 
shown by the assertion in the principal proposition. The 
latter reveals the state of mind of the speaker, and thus 
determines the mode of the conditional clause. 

, . , . , { why did you not reprove me ? (Ind.) 

If you knew my fault \ , , ^^ i x 

'^ "^ "^ ^ [ you would reprove me. (Sub.) 

^, , (why did not the usher admit us? (Ind.) 

If there were vacant seats \ ,^ "^ . ,, , ., ,r. , . 

( the usher would admit us. (Sub.) 

The examples above show that in the past and past 
perfect tenses when the conditional clause is indicative, it 
assumes a fact, and when subjunctive, it implies denial. 

The conjunctions zf, though^ etc., are no certain sign of 
the subjunctive mode, nor is their absence proof of the 
indicative. 

Examples: If she knows her duty, she will do it. (Ind.) 
Were he honest, he would be chosen. (Sub.), 



228 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

When the conjunction is omitted before a subjunctive 
clause, the subject follows the verb or the first auxiliary. 

Notice that a subjoined clause expressing doubt, contin- 
gency, etc., modifies the verb in the main proposition; it 
is therefore adverbial. 

Some writers of excellent repute make little use of 
expressions like. If it rain^ unless he go^ whether he leave^ 
etc. Others use the forms is and he with no seeming 
preference for either, and the -s form of the verb is slowly 
supplanting the root form. 



Exercise. 

(a) Why is a proposition that is introduced by if 
though^ or unless^ a clause? 

(5) Point out the clauses below, and tell what each 
modifies. 

(c) Point out the verb forms that are subjunctive. 
Which of these imply denial ? 

1. The man runs as if he feared arrest. 

2. If an inscription be put upon my tomb, it may be this. 

3. Had the chorister been present, we should have had fine singing. 

4. Unless we sow, we shall not reap. 

5. If the nominee were assured of your support, he would not with- 

draw. 

6. If thy heart fails thee, climb not. 

7. Beware lest thou be led into temptation. 

8. I will not let thee go, except thou bless me. 

9. He will not live to my age unless he keep in breath with exercise 

and in heart with jo}-fulness. 

10. If the youth heed his mother's counsel, he may yet become a 

worthy citizen. 

11. Though the mills of God grind slowly, 
Yet they grind exceeding small. 



INFINITIVES. 229 

CLV. INFINITIVES. 

(Review pages 133-137 and 206.) 

We learned in Part II. that there are two verbal nouns, 
called infinitives, one ending in ing^ and one consisting of 
the root of a verb preceded by the preposition to. 

Examples : To preach is easier than to practice. (Infinitive phrase.) 
Preaching is easier than practicing. (Infinitive in ing.) 

It will be seen in the first example that the infinitive is 
a noun phrase. Infinitive phrases are also used as adjec- 
tives or adverbs. 

Examples: I have a house to let. (Adjective modifying house.') 
He is eager to go. (Adverb modifying eager.) 

The principal uses of the infinitive phrase, then, are the 
following : — 

(1) A noun, subject of a sentence ; as, To err is human. 

(2) A noun, object of a transitive verb ; as, I like to 
read. 

(3) A noun, object of a preposition ; as, / am about to 
start. 

(4) A noun complement of a verb ; as. To try is to 
succeed. 

(5) A noun appositive; as, He had the misfortune to lose 
his money. 

(6) An adjective; as, Air to breathe is a vital necessity. 

(7) An adverb; as, I ivas sorry to miss the concert. 

The sign to of the infinitive is usually omitted after the 
active voice of the verbs bid., dare., feel., have (in the sense 
of cause)., hear., let., make^ need., and see. 

Examples : I bade him (to) go. I heard you (to) speak. We 
heard the birds (to) sing. The teacher will have 
the boy (to) recite. 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART m. 



Exercise I. 

State concerning each of the following infinitives whether 
it is used as a subject, an object, a complement, an appos- 
itive, an adjective, or an adverb. 

1. To sin is to suffer. 7. I am prepared to hear you. 

2. He forgot to write. 8. He wished to see the end. 

3. We are in haste to begin. 9. You were kind enough to aid. 

4. The horse is eager to start. 10. She longed to reach the child. 

5. You have a problem to solve. 11. They saw the enemy advance. 

6. You ought to go. 12. Leaves have thek time to fall. 

13. They had the good fortune to escape. 

14. The student has a license to preach. 

15. The cuckoo tried to steal the nest. 

16. They can be trusted to follow. 

17. The committee have two plans to offer. 

18. She is sad to see her sister failing. 

19. I have come to hear you (to) sing. 

20. Their efforts seem to fail. 

21. Thou art glad to find thyself so strong. 

22. It seems sweet to rest upon the clover sod. 

Exercise 2. 
Analyze the following sentences. 

1. Be careful to avoid giving offense. 

2. She has promised to sing in aid of the poor. 

3. In that elder day, to be a Roman was greater than to be a king. 

4. A quarrel arose from a misunderstanding respecting the true mean- 

ing of one term in the contract. 

5. You can not avoid seeing that this doctrine has been gradually 

superseding the other, 
tj. Will men refrain from injuring others unless they have within 
them a benevolent spirit prompting them to do good ? 

7. Who would not give a trifle to prevent 

What he would give a thousand worlds to cure ? 

8. Our leading publishers are endeavoring to supply a demand for 

choice literature by bringing out the works of the best writers. 



INFINITIVES. 231 



CLVI. INFINITIVES (continued). 

In the Bible, and in writings of two or three centuries 
ago, the infinitive is sometimes used as the object of the 
preposition /or. 

Examples : What went ye out for to see ? 

And hath made of one blood all nations of men, for to 
dwell on the face of the earth. 

In modern English, the preposition /or before an infini- 
tive has disappeared, except in the language of the unedu- 
cated ; but the infinitive is still used to express a purpose. 

Example: He came ^o /earn. (Why did he come?) 

Exercise. 

(a) In each of the following sentences point out the 
infinitive, tell how it is used, and what it modifies. 
(6) Analyze the last three sentences. 

1. These men were sent to rule a distant province. 

2. She must be examined to test her sanity. 

3. The law was framed to prevent injustice. 

4. They met to solemnize the feast. 

5. He is old enough to vote. 

6. Love would freely die to shield thee. 

7. The sentinel was set to guard the gate. 

8. To do a great deed may demand a gi'eat sacrifice. 

9. Not to save my right hand would I do it. 

10. I forgot to mail the letter. 

11. The traveler stayed by a cool spring to rest. 

12. He is too young to enlist. 

13. To cure their mad ambition, the emperor sent these men to rule 

a distant province. 

14. The lesson to learn is the well-doing of present duty. 

15. Sympathy will open doors which all other keys fail to unlock. 

16. To cease to change is to cease to live. 



232 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 



CLVII. CONJUGATIONS {for Reference). 

We have seen that five of the parts of speech are 
inflected, and that the inflection of verbs is called conju- 
gation. 

The term conjugation is also used to designate an orderly- 
arrangement of the forms of a verb in the various modes, 
tenses, numbers, and persons. (See page 156.) 

Such a conjugation is convenient for reference, though 
it consists of little more than an orderly arrangement of 
auxiliaries in different tenses of the verb. 

The important thing to know is, the law that governs 
the few forms that we have. 



THE VERBS HAVE, BE, MOVE. (Active Voice.) 
Indicative Mode. 

Verb Have. 

Principal Parts. — Pres., /mue; Past, /mc?; Perf . Part, /mc?. 
Primary Tenses. 

Present Tense. 



SINGULAR. 




PLURAL. 


I have 




We have 


You have 




You have 


He has 


Past Tense. 


They have 


I had 




We had 


You had 




You had 


He had 




They had 



Future Tense (sign, shall or will). 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

I shall have We shall have 

You will have You will have 

He will have They will have 



CONJUGATIONS. 233 

Indicative Mode {continued). 

Perfect Tenses. 

Present Perfect Tense (sign, have). 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

I have had We have had 

You have had You have had 

He has had They have had 

Past Perfect Tense (sign, had). 

I had had We had had 

You had had You had had 

He had had They had had 

Future Perfect Tense (sign, shall have or loill have) . 

I shall have had We shall have had 

You will have had You will have had 

He will have had They will have had 

Verb Be. 

Principal Parts. — Pres., &e or am; Past, was; Perf. Part., 6een. 
Primary Tenses. 





Present 


Tense. 




singular. 






PLURAL, 


I am 






We are 


You are 






You are 


He is 






They are 




Past Tense. 




I was 






We were 


You were 






You were 


He was 






They were 



Future Tense (sign, shall or will). 

I shall be We shall be 

You will be You will be 

He will be They will be 



234 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 



Indicative Mode (continued). 

Perfect Tenses. 

Present Perfect Tense (sign, have). 



SINGULAR. 

I have been 
You have been 
He has been 



PLURAL. 

We have been 
You have been 
They have been 



Past Perfect Tense (sign, had). 

I had been We had been 

You had been You had been 

He had been They had been 

Future Perfect Tense (sign, shall have or will have). 

I shall have been We shall have been 

You will have been You will have been 

He will have been They will have been 



Verb Move. 

Principal Parts. — Pres., wioye; Past, /noyec?; Perf . Part., Tworerf. 

Primary Tenses. 

Present Tense. 



SINGULAR. 

I move 
You move 
He moves 



SINGULAR. 

I moved 
You moved 
He moved 



Past Tense. 



PLURAL. 

AVe move 
You move 
They move 



PLURAL. 

We moved 
You moved 
They moved 



Future Tense (sign, shall or will). 

I shall move We shall move 

You will move You will move 

He will move They will move 



CONJUGATIONS. 235 

Indicative Mode {continued). 
Perfect Tenses. 

Present Perfect Tense (sign, have). 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

I have moved We have moved 

You have moved You have moved 

He has moved They have moved 

Past Perfect Tense (sign, had). 

I had moved We had moved 

You had moved You had moved 

He had moved They had moved 

Future Perfect Tense (sign, shall have or will have). 

I shall have moved We shall have moved 

You will have moved You will have moved 

He will have moved They will have moved 

Imperative Mode. 

The imperative mode is used only in the present tense, 
second person, and the only form used is the root. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

(Have, or have thou Have, or have ye or you 

Be, or be thou Be, or be ye or you 

Move, or move thou Move, or move ye or you 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Notice (1), that subjunctive clauses are usually intro- 
duced by a conjunction expressing doubt, condition, or 
contingency (^/, though., unless^ etc.) ; (2) that, when used 
subjunctively, neither the principal verb nor the auxiliary 
takes the -s form ; (3) that the subjunctive mode has but 
three tenses, viz. present, past, and past perfect. 



236 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART lU. 



Subjunctive Mode (continued). 

Verb Have. 





Present Tense. 




SINGULAR. 

If I have 
If you have 
If he have 




PLURAL. 

If we have 
If you have 
If they have 


If I had 
If you had 
If he had 


Past Tense. 


If w^e had 
If you had 
If they had 


Past Perfect Tense. 
If I had had 
If you had had 
If he had had 


If we had had 
If you had had 
If they had had 




Verb Be. 




If I be 
If you be 
If he be 


Present Tense. 


If we be 
If you be 
If they be 


If I were 


Past Tense. 


If we were 


If you were 
If he were 




If you were 
If they were 



Past Perfect Tense. 

If I had been If we had been 

If you had been If you had been 

If he had been If they had been 



CONJUGATIONS. 



237 



Subjunctive Mode (continued). 
Verb Move, 

Present Tense. 



SINGULAR. 

If I move 
If you move 
If he move 



PLURAL. 

If we move 
If you move 
If they move 



If I moved 
If you moved 
If he moved 



Past Tense. 



If we moved 
If you moved 
If they moved 



Past Perfect Tense. 



If I had moved 
If you had moved 
If he had moved 



If we had moved 
If you had moved 
If they had moved 



Infinitives. 



Pres. 



To have 
To be 
To move 



Per/. 



To have had 
To have been 
To have moved 



Pres. 



Having 

Being 

[ Moving 



Participles. 



fHad 

Pei-f. I Been 
Moved 



Compound Per/. 



Having had 
Having been 
Having moved 



For the conjugation of the progressive and passive forms, see the 
verb " drive," page 238. 



238 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 



THE VERB jyjRIYE. (Progressive and Passive.) 
Indicative Mode. 





Present Tense. 




SINGULAR. 




Prog. Pass. 


I am 


driving driven We are 


You are 


driving driven You are 


He is 


driving driven They are 



PLURAL. 



Prog. Pass. 

driving driven 
driving driven 
driving driven 



Past Tense. 

I was driving driven We were 

You were driving driven You were 

He was driving driven They were 



driving driven 
driving driven 
driving driven 



Future Tense. 

I shall be driving driven We shall be driving driven 

You will be driving driven You will be driving driven 

He will be driving driven They will be driving driven 

Present Perfect Tense. 

I have been driving driven We have been driving driven 

You have been driving driven You have been driving driven 

He has been driving driven They have been driving driven 

Past Perfect Tense. 

I had been driving driven We had been driving driven 

You had been driving driven You had been driving driven 

He had been driving driven They had been driving driven 



Future Perfect Tense. 



I shall have been driving driven 
You will have been driving driven 
He will have been driving driven 



We shall have been driving driven 
You will have been driving driven 
They will have been driving driven 



CONJUGATIONS. 239 



Infinitives. 



Present Progressive, To be driving 

Present Passive, To be driven 

Perfect Progressive, To have been driving 

Perfect Passive, To have been driven 

Participles. 

Passive Progressive, Being driven 

Perfect, Active or Passive, Driven 

Compound Perfect Progressive, Having been driving 

Compound Perfect Passive, Having been driven 



Subjunctive Mode. 

The progressive and the passive forms of the three tenses 
of the subjunctive mode are now known, since they are made 
by adding the imperfect and the passive participles to the 
subjunctive forms of be. Thus, — 

Progressive. Passive. 

Present. If I be driving driven 

Past. If I were driving driven 

Past Perf If I had been driving driven 

The voice of a perfect participle can not be determined 
from its form ; but when it is used in a sentence or even 
in a verb-phrase, an infinitive, or a compound participle, 
the voice is at once evident. In the active voice, the per- 
fect participle is used in combination with have^ to form 
the three perfect tenses and the compound participle. 
When used Avithout an auxiliary or in combination with 
some form of Je, it is passive. 

Examples : I have driven the horse ten miles. (Active.) 

The son, crowned with blessing, took his leave. (Pass.) 
He was driven to his cage by the keeper. (Pass.) 



240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

CLVm. THE ANCIENT FORMS OF VERBS. 

(Review Lesson CIX., page 16L) 

Exercise I. 

This thou knowest. 
This you know. 



Write the following sentences, changing both verbs and 
pronouns to the common style. Be careful not to change 
the tense. 

1. Thou didst strive against thy tempter. 

2. Why doth this man seek thy harm ? 

3. Thou renewest the kind service I had from thee hefore. 

4. The new piece teareth away from the old garment. 

5. Thou didst drive out the heathen ; thou plantedst them ; thou 

didst afflict the people. 

6. Thou hast not let me know whom thou wilt send. 

7. When thou wast young, thou girdedst thyself and walkedst whither 

thou wouldest. 

8. O daughter of Bahylon, who art to be destroyed, happy shall he be 

that rewardeth thee ! 

Exercise 2. 

Change the following to the ancient, or solemn, style 
without change of tense. 

1. Your own mouth condemns you. 

2. Bread strengthens the heart of your child. 

3. The place where you (sing.) stand is holy ground. 

4. Who are you (sing.) that judge another ? 

5. The mustard seed shoots up, and throw^s out great branches. 

6. James, you have guided them well, and shall conduct them to- 

morrow. 

7. My brother, you knew this need of your neighbor, yet did not 

open your hand to aid. 



THE OBJECTIVE NOUN CLAUSE. 241 

CLIX. REVIEW OF CONJUGATIONS. 

(1) Define the terms inflection and conjugation. 

(2) Name the four auxiliaries that may also be used as 
principal verbs. Illustrate both uses in sentences. 

(3) How many forms of he are there in the indicative 
present? in the past? in the future? Why do are and 
were appear among the singular forms ? 

(4) How are the perfect tenses made ? How many 
forms of the auxiliary have appear in the perfect tenses ? 

(5) In all verbs except 5e, how does the present sub- 
junctive differ from the present indicative ? Do the verb 
forms in the past perfect subjunctive differ from those in 
the past perfect indicative ? 

(6) Tell how the passive and progressive forms are 
made, and illustrate in sentences. 

(7) Write three sentences, each containing a verb in 
the ancient form, — one in the present tense, one in the 
past, and one in the past perfect. 

CLX. THE OBJECTIVE NOUN CLAUSE ABRIDGED. 

Examine the sentences in the following pairs and tell 
whether they differ in thought or only in form. 

(1) The physician declared that the man was sane. 

(2) The physician declared the man to he sane. 

(1) The professor decides that these ruins were castle walls. 

(2) The prof essor decides these 7mins to have heen castle walls. 

(1) I think that he is right. (1) I know that it is he. 

(2) I think him to he right. (2) I know it to he him. 

It will be seen that each sentence marked (1) contains 
an objective noun clause ; and that each sentence marked 

MET. ENG. GRAM. 10 



242 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART I IT. 

(2) contains an objective noun phrase equivalent in mean- 
ing to the clause. The meaning of the two sentences is 
the same, but the clause has been abridged to a phrase. 
These are called grammatical equivalents. 

In such phrases, an infinitive takes the place of the 
verb, and the subject of the clause appears, in the phrase, 
in the objective case. This last change is shown only 
where the subject is a pronoun having a case form in the 
objective. (See third pair.) 

The verb be in all its forms takes the same case after as 
before it ; consequently its noun or pronoun complement, in 
objective noun phrases, must be in the objective. 

The infinitive, though it never asserts directly, is often 
used to predicate indirectly. When so used, the noun or 
pronoun preceding, though in the objective case, is called 
the subject of the infinitive. Hence the rule : — 

The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case. 

Exercise I. 

Rewrite the following sentences, choosing the correct 
form from each parenthesis, and give a reason for your 
choice. 

1. I know that it was (her, she). 

2. I know it to have been (her, she). 

3. You thought it was (he, him). 

4. You thought it was to be (he, him). 

5. (Who, whom) did you see ? 

6. Was it (he, him) or (her, she)? 

7. I know (whom, who) it is for. 

8. They knew (whom, who) it was. 

9. I took it to be (he, him). 

10. We were sure that it was (her, she). 

11. Do you suppose it to be (they, them)? 

12. Do you suppose that it is (they, them) ? 



INDIRECT OBJECTS OF VERBS. 243 



Exercise 2. 

(a) Point out the clauses and phrases in the following 
sentences and give their construction. 

(6) Expand the noun phrases into clauses. 

1. The general orders him to retke. 

2. I deem that she is stricken. 

3. They feigned themselves to be timid. 

4. She conceived that he had become a prince. 

5. Do you imagine the clouds to be islands ? 

6. I fancy her to be a countess. 

7. You guess that I am sixteen. 

8. I conjecture him to be in trouble. 

9. They hold that we are their debtors. 



CLXI. INDIRECT OBJECTS OF VERBS. 

A few verbs in the language may be followed by two 
objects, one called the direct, and the other the indirect. 

My employer paid me the money. 

Here me and money both appear as objects of the verb 
paid^ but if the sentence is rearranged thus : My employer 
paid the money to me, it will be seen that me is the object 
of the preposition to^ while money is the object of the verb. 

The object following the preposition, expressed or under- 
stood, is the indirect object of the verb ; the other is its direct 
object. 

Among the verbs that may be followed by two objects 
are the following : — 



allow 


forgive 


obtain 


promise 


show 


ask 


gain 


offer 


provide 


teach 


bring 


get 


pay 


refuse 


teU 


buy 


give 


prepare 


sell 


write 


deny 


make 


procure 


send 


yield 



244 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

Sentences containing two objects, one direct and the 
other indirect, will frequently furnish two passive con- 
structions. 

Examples : Active, The governor gave him the office. 

p . j He was given the office by the governor. 

' I The office was given to him by the governor. 

Exercise I. 

(a) Rewrite the following sentences so as to show the 
construction of the direct and the indirect object. Draw one 
line under the direct object and two under the indirect.^ 

(6) Change each sentence from the active to the passive 
form. When possible, show two passive forms. 

1. The gate keeper refused them admittance. 

2. I will ask you one question. 

3. My brother will buy me a watch. 

4. Did the Secretary furnish you instructions ? 

5. The merchant left his children a large estate. 

6. The citizens gave Minister Lowell a banquet. 

7. I will teach you the fear of the Lord. 

8. The prisoner's former blameless life will insure him an early 

pardon. 

9. Varied forms give language a charm. 

10. The orchard yielded the farmer ample return for his labor. 

11. The governor gave him the office. 

12. The President sent Congress a copy of his message. 

1 The indirect object is sometimes called the dative-objectivo, to distiu- 
guish it from the direct object, sometimes called the accusative-objective. 
The dative case, in old English, was an inflected form of the noun and pro- 
noun denoting the same relations that are denoted hy the prepositions to and 
for in modern English. In like manner, our possessive case, denoted by the 
apostrophe and s, often indicates the same relation as the preposition of. The 
President's proclamation = The proclamation of the Presideyit. The earth's 
motion = The motion of the earth. The forms of nouns and pronouns when 
following prepositions, are now the same as when following transitive verbs, 
so that the name dative is no longer needed. 



OBJECTIVE ATTRIBUTE. . 245 

CLXII. OBJECTIVE ATTRIBUTE. 

Predicate nouns and predicate adjectives are called 
attributes of the subject, because they denote properties or 
characteristics attributed to the subject. (See page 54.) 

In like manner, the object of a verb is sometimes fol- 
lowed by a noun or an adjective denoting an attribute of 
the object, that is conferred through the action expressed 
by the verb. 

The gardener made the walk even. 

In the sentence above, if we inquire for the object of 
the transitive verb made by asking jnade what f the answer 
is, the ivalk even. The gardener may or may not have 
made the walk; he did make it even, and the quality of 
evenness came to it through the action denoted by the 
verb made. The adjective even is evidently an attribute 
of the object walk. 

The parents named the child Mary. 

Here the name is acquired through the action expressed 
by the verb named, or in other words, the name Mary is 
attributed to the child. 

In the foregoing and in similar examples, the noun or 
adjective showing the office, name, class, or quality con- 
ferred through the action expressed by the verb, is an 
attribute of the direct object of the verb, and may properly 
be called an objective attribute. 

Such nouns and adjectives are sometimes called factitive 
objects, but they may be classed as adjective modifiers of 
the noun immediately preceding. The noun modifier is 
an appositive, which is one form of the adjective modifier. 

A long illness had made the child iveak. 

Whosoever maketh himself a king speaketh against Ccesar. 



246 . EN^GLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

In the first sentence, tveak is an adjective modifying the 
noun child; and in the second, kirig is an appositive of 
the pronoun himself. 

Exercise. 
In each of the following sentences, point out the objec- 
tive attribute, tell what part of speech it is, and state its 
use. 

1. The judges proclaimed him victor. 

2. The club made Ellis chairman. 

3. Jack has worn his shoes thin. 

4. Some called the boy ]Drecocious. 

5. His parents thought him a genius. 

6. I walked myself foot-sore. 

7. We will paint the wall blue. 

8. Some make the law a scarecrow. 

9. Constant fear makes the strongest weak. 

10. The tinner made the leak worse. 

11. James drew the line straight. 

12. Attention held them mute. 

13. Open the door wide. 

14. Make the surface smooth. 

15. She makes the needy her care. 

16. The umpire declared him the champion. 

17. Count that day lost. 

18. He left me destitute. 

19. God called the light day and the darkness he called night. 

CLXIII. DIFFERENT FORMS OF OBJECTS. 

The object of a verb, as we have seen, may be a noun, 
a pronoun, a verbal noun, or a clause. You remember 
that the verbal noun may take the form in irig^ or the form 
with to ; as, dying ^ or to die. 

These different forms give a pleasant variety to the 
construction of sentences, and add a charm to language 
which it would not otherwise have. 



DIFFERENT FORMS OF OBJECTS. 



247 



Exercise. 

He fears death. He fears dying, 
fears that he shall die. 



He fears to die. He 



Select verbs from the following list and construct sen- 
tences that will illustrate the use of a part or all of the 
four forms shown in the table on the next page. Not 
every one of the four forms of objects, however, can be 
appropriately used with each verb in the list. 



fears 
scorns 
mind 
bear 



wish 
causes 
forgot 
prefer 



refuse 
endure 
promise 
dislike 



propose 
intend 
expect 
requires 



decline 
ventures 
arrange 
deserves 



NOUNS. 

death 

grief 

food 

advice 

the collection 
the movement 
shelter 
apologies 

punishment 

investment 
health 
failure 
opposition 
the relief 

rebuke 



VERBAL NOUNS. 

dying, to die 

grieving, to grieve 

feeding, to be fed 

being advised, to be advised^ 

collecting, to collect 
moving, to move 
sheltering, to shelter 
apologizing, to apologize 

punishing, to be punished 

investing, to invest 
healing, to be healed 
failing, to fail 
opposing, to be opposed 
relieving, to relieve 

rebuking, to be rebuked 



the reading reading, to read 



CLAUSES. 

that he (one, they) shall 

(should) die 
that one (he, they) should 

(might) grieve 
that one should feed me 
that one should advise 

him 
that it should be collected 
that it should be moved 
that I would shelter 
that one should apologize 
that one should punish 

him 
that I may safely invest 
that he may be healed 
that he should fail 
that one should oppose me 
that he shall be relieved 
that one should rebuke 

him 
that one should read 



248 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART 111. 

CLXTV. COORDINATE CONNECTIVES. 

Examine the following sentence. 

Bark grow the windo2VS, and quenched are the fires. 

In this compound sentence the two statements joined 
by a7id are independent ; that is, neither depends on the 
other. They are thus seen to be of the same rank, or 
level. 

Croumed with floivers and ivith heather. 

In this expression each phrase modifies the same word, 
crowned. These phrases, therefore, are of the same rank. 

(1) Rome and Carthage were rivals. 

(2) The thing is neither green 7ior blue. 

(3) Slowly and sadly tve laid him down. 

In each of the foregoing sentences, the two words in 
Roman type have the same construction ; that is, are 
built into the sentence in the same way ; hence they have 
the same rank. In (1) they are united to form the subject 
of the sentence ; in (2), to form the complement ; and in 
(3), to modify the verb. 

Connectives which join words, phrases, or statements 
that are alike in rank are called coordinate. 

The following list comprises those most frequently 
used : — 



so 


yet 


either 


therefore 


or 


nor 


so that 


otherwise 


but 


else 


neither 


wherefore 


and 


still 


further 


accordingly 


also 


thus 


so then 


consequently 


both 


than 


however 


notwithstanding 



CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 249 



CLXV. CORRELATIVE CONJUNCTIONS. 

Some coordinate conjunctions are used in pairs to con- 
nect the parts of a sentence. They are then called correla- 
tive. 

Either / 7nust have ivoi% or my family must suffer. 
Where neither moth nor rust doth corrupt. 

In these sentences the conjunctions either^ neither^ pre- 
pare the mind for the alternative suggested by the words 
or, nor. 

Strictly speaking, either and neither should be used only 
in reference to two objects ; yet both of these words are 
used by some good writers and speakers witli reference to 
more than two objects. 

The chief correlatives are either — or, yieither — nor^ both 
— and., not only — hut also^ as well — as., as — so, so — that. 

Two or three words are frequently used together to 
connect parts of sentences ; as, as if., even if., even though^ 
saving that^ in order that., etc. 

Exercise. 

(<i) Point out the coordinate conjunctions, and tell what 
each connects. Which are correlative ? 
(5) Analyze each sentence. 

1. The winds and the waves are absent there. 

2. You say that you are my friend ; then do not flatter nie. 

3. Mr. E.'s declination seemed final ; however, he has now accepted. 

4. AVe look before and after, and pine for what is not. 

5. He has become wealthy ; still, he goes on accumulating. 

6. Self-love and reason to one end aspire. 

7. The young man was taken for a novice ; whereas, he was an adept. 

8. Neither a borrower nor a lender be. 



250 ENGLrSH GRAIVIMAR, PART m. 

9. 1 have believed ; therefore have I spoken. 

10. The floods came, and the winds blew, but it fell not. 

11. Our neighbor is not rich, nor is he poor. 

12. Jackson has not sought the nomination ; moreover, he will refuse it. 

13. There is a class of students and thinkers whose intellectual action 

is alive and warm. 

14. Our bane and physic the same earth bestows. 
And near the noisome nettle blooms the rose. 



CLXVI. COMPOUND ELEMENTS. 

We have seen nouns and pronouns used in many differ- 
ent relations — as subjects, complements, objects, etc. In 
nearly every one of these relations, nouns and pronouns 
may form compound elements. 

Examples : The moon and stars are hidden. 
Jansen is a painter and glazier. 

In the same way, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs are joined 
to form compound predicates or compound modifiers. 

Examples : In Him we live and move and have our being. 
Great and glorious are thy works. 
Her thoughts moved sunward and Godward. 

Phrases and also clauses are compounded when both 
modify the same word. 

Examples: Arise in courage and in might. 

They came ivhere the cowslips grew and where the grass 

was fresh and fine. 
What 1 did or what I left undone, no one asked. 

In like manner, a word and a phrase are compounded. 

Example : She gave gladly and without stint. 

The parts forming the compound element are said to be 
coordinated. 



COMPOUND ELEMENTS. 251 

Exercise. 

(1) I meet him now and then at my friend's house. 

In this sentence, noiv and then is a compound element, 
the two connected words being adverbs, modifiers of the 
verb meet. 

(2) One of the holiest relations is that of mother and son. 

Here mother and son is the compound element. The 
phrase of mother and son is an appositive of that. 

(3) Of Him.) and through Him., and to Him, are all things. 

Here the attributive verb are is modified by a compound 
adverbial element, consisting of three phrases. 



(a) Point out in each example below, the part that is 
compound, and state whether the parts coordinated are 
words, phrases, clauses, or independent propositions. 

(6) Name the principal proposition ; also, tell what the 
phrases and clauses modify. 

1. He spoke from the platform and through the press. 

2. Nature is frugal, and her wants are few. 

3. Here is a proof of wisdom and of love. 

4. The country offers sweet odors and alluring sights. 

5. Is it her natui-e or is it her will ? 

6. We moved through dark and desert ways. 

7. In works of labor or of skill, let me be busy. 

8. Bring lilies to altar and shrine. 

9. The bears moved ceaselessly to and fro. 

10. A mantle of pity falls soft on a wound or a woe. 

11. 'Tis Nature's voice, and Nature we obey. 

12. Chanticleer salutes the light, and struts before his flock. 

13. The moon's veil is both her luster and her shade. 

14. If he is timid or if he is too bold, we reject him. 

15. Stay till the fields are fragrant and the woods are green. 



252 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

CLXVII. SUBORDINATE CONNECTIVES. 

(Review pages 75 and 192-194.) 

In the sentence, When the children are gone^ I sit dream- 
ing^ we have one independent statement, I sit dreaming^ 
and one dependent statement or clause. When the childreyi 
are gone. These two statements, connected by the con- 
junctive adverb when^ are therefore of unequal rank. 

Connectives that join parts of unequal rank are called 
subordinate. Clauses are always subordinate to the main 
proposition, and every connective introducing a clause is 
a subordinate connective. 

Below are the principal subordinate connectives : — 



if 


when 


because 


since 


although 


lest 


where 


except 


than 


unless 


for 


whence 


while 


that 


whether 


as 


often 


provided 


though 


whereas 


ere 


until 


as soon as 


before 


as long as 



When used as conjunctions, as and for are sometimes 
coordinate and sometimes subordinate. 

Subordinate propositions, or clauses, are variously con- 
nected with their principals. 

(1) By subordinate conjunctions. 

Clauses introduced by subordinate connectives may 
denote : — 

1. Cause: We must seek shelter, /or the storm is near. 

2. Condition : If Httle be our labor, small will be our gains. 

3. Concession : Though he is old, yet he is strong. 

4. Purpose or end : " I say these things, that ye may be saved." 

5. Comparison : He rises earlier than I (rise). 

Clauses like the foregoing modify the verb of the prin- 
cipal proposition, and are therefore adverbial clauses. 



SUBORDINATE CONNECTIVES. 253 

(2) By conjunctive pronouns. 

The conjunctive pronouns who^ which, that, and as repre- 
sent the person or thing denoted by the antecedent. In 
doing this, the pronoun connects with its antecedent the 
clause in which the pronoun stands. Such clauses are 
adjective. 

(3) By conjunctive adverbs. 

He has gone to Cleveland, where he will reside = He has 
gone to Cleveland, in which place he will reside. 

The phrase in tvhich place is an adverb modifier of ivill 
reside. Which refers to the antecedent Cleveland, and 
thus joins the dependent proposition to the principal 
proposition. 

Notice that the adverb where here modifies but one verb. 
The same word may be used to modify both the verb of 
the principal proposition and that of the dependent. 

The tree lies where it fell = The tree lies in the place on 
which it fell. 

In the place being a phrase modifier of lies, and on tvhich 
a phrase modifier of fell, we see that where fills two adver- 
bial ofBces. It is therefore a compound conjunctive adverb. 

The following list contains the words most frequently 
used as conjunctive adverbs : — 

as why while wherein wherefore whereat 

M^hen where whenever whereby whereon whence 

Phrases are often used in place of simple conjunctions. 
Some of the most common are as if, as though, as well as, 
as soon as, as long as, in order that. 

Examples : He studies as if he were anxious to learn. 

The pupils go as soon as the clock strikes twelve. 
William saved his money in order that he might go to 
college. 



254 ENGLISH GKAMMAR, PART HI. 



Exercise. 

(a) Point out each connective, and tell to what part of 
speech it belongs. 

(6) State the use of each clause and phrase. 

1. No one doubts that the senator will be heard. 

2. Unless we sow, we shaU not reap. 

3. The culprit has been returned to the cell whence he escaped. 

4. Clara and I were writing when father arrived. 

5. I will go whither Truth leads. 

6. We reached a shelter just as the storm burst forth. 

7. As this treaty consulted the good of the two parties, it was long 

preserved. 

8. You should help this committee, since the cause is worthy, and 

you have the means. 

9. If you will give me time, I will prove what I said. 

10. Is thine eye evil because I am good ? 

11. The seed sprouted where it fell. 



CLXYIII. RULES FOR SPELLING. 

Few helpful rules for spelling can be given. The fol- 
lowing, however, should be thoroughly learned. The daily 
spelling lesson will furnish the best possible exercise in 
the application of these rules. 

A final silent e is dropped on taking a suffix beginning with a 
vowel. 

Examples : close, closing, closm-e ; blame, blamable, blamed. (In 
blamed, ed is the suffix, as the final e has been 
dropped.) 

Exceptions. — Final e is retained in dyeing^ singeing^ 
tingeing, to distinguish these words from dging, singing, 
tinging. 

Final e is also retained in canoei7ig, hoeing, shoeing, 
toeing, to insure correct pronunciation. 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 255 

Again, e is retained whenever a word ending in ce or ge 
receives a suffix beginning with a or o. This is done in 
order to preserve the soft sound of c and g. 

Examples : peace, peaceable ; manage, manageable ; outrage, out- 
rageous. 

Monosyllables and words accented on the last syllable, end- 
ing in a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double 
the final consonant on taking a suffix beginning with a vowel. 

Examples : plan, planning, planned ; begin, beginning, beginner. 

Exercise. 

Add two or more of the suffixes ahle^ al^ ance^ ence^ ant^ 
ent, ihle, ing, ed, en, er, est, ish, to each word in the follow- 
ing list, and show that the spelling does, or that it does not, 
fall under one of the foregoing rules. 

cure pale subdue remit wed dream 

remove observe white occur overrun cool 

reverse blue fatigue bat heed murmui- 

excuse argue rid fret fail differ 

prove converse red extol disturb wear 

A noun ending in / preceded by a vowel forms its plural by 
adding s to the singular. 

Examples : alley, alleys ; money, moneys ; attorney, attorneys. 

A noun ending in / preceded by a consonant forms its plural 
by changing/ to ie and adding s. 

Examples : fly, flies ; mercy, mercies ; ally, allies ; soliloquy, solilo- 
quies. 

Remark. — The letter u following q, and not silent, has the sound 
of w in win ; that is, it is a consonant. 

Derivatives formed by prefixing one or more syllables to 
words ending in a double consonant, commonly retain both 
consonants. 

Examples : recall, fulfill, enroll, instill, emboss. 
The word until is an exception. 



256 EN^GLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

CLXIX. USE DETERMINES CLASSIFICATION". 

(Review Lesson LVIII., page 78.) 

In the sentence, Are is the copula^ it is plain that the 
word are is a noun. Evidently, any word in the language 
may be used as a noun. Vast numbers of nouns may be 
used as verbs : We paint the wall, iron the linen, water 
the flowers, paper the ceiling, carpet the floor, ink the 
fingers, border a garment, floor a cabin, ship freight, 
freight a ship, house our stock, stock our stores, and land 
our passengers. 

Again, nouns often become adjectives. Thus we have 
cloth measure, body servant, hand car, shoe shop, shore bird, 
shot io\YQ\\ freight agent, title deed. 

The examples above call for little or no study. Below, 
we present for reference a few examples of words not so 
easily classified. 

About. (1) Preposition. — Bind them a^owi thy neck. (2) Adverb. — 
About ten more were sold. We wandered about from house to 
house. 

Above. (1) Preposition. — Above i\\Q clowd. is the star with its light. 
(2) Adverb. — That prayer was wafted to the powers above. 
Above a dim light was seen, but below all was dark. (8) Noun. — 
Every good gift is from above. 

After. (1) Preposition. — After the failure. (2) Conjunctive Ad- 
verb. — He left after the guests came in. 

All. (1) Pronoun. — All refused. (2) Noun. — This child was her 
all. (3) Adjective. — .4// this counsel was vain. (4) Adverb. — 
Your work is all awry. 

.4.S-. (1) Conjunctive Pronoun. — Reject such as are shop-worn. 

(2) Conjunction. — The house was abandoned, as it was unsafe. 

(3) Conjunctive Adverb. — He is not so tall as I. (4) Adverb. — 
What other toil is as hard ? (5) Preposition (or sign of apposi- 
tion). — I consulted him as a physician. 



USE DETERMINES CLASSIFICATION. 257 

Both. (1) Adjective. — Both books are mine. (2) Pronoun. — Both 

are mine. (3) Conjunction. — lie is hath able and willing. 
Bui. (1) Conjunction. — He must increase, hut I must decrease. 

(2) Preposition. — All but him have fled. (3) Adverb. — At 
worst, we shall hut fail. 

Either. (1) Adjective. — Trade with either grocer. (2) Conjunc- 
tion.^ The order was taken either by this boy or by his father. 

(3) Adjective Pronoun. — Either will serve the purpose. 

Fast. (1) Noun. — A forty days' /as^. (2) Verb. — AVe fast often. 

(3) Adverb. — They live fast by. Fast and thick fell the snow. 

(4) Adjective. — Make /as^ the door, i^as^ colors. 

Like. (1) Noun. — I shall not look upon his like again. Our likes and 
dislikes. (2) Adjective. — Like figures. He giveth snow like'^ 
wool. (3) Adverb. — X/A'e^ one in prayer I stood. (4) Verb. — 
He likes his profession. 

Much. (1) Adverb. — He talks too much. (2) Adjective. — Much learn- 
ing hath made him mad. (3) Noun. — He made much of this favor. 

Near or Nigh. (1) Adverb. — He drew nigh unheard. The ship 
drew near'^ shore. (2) Adjective. — Near kinsman. 

Notwithstanding. (1) Preposition. — Notwithstanding the crowd, he 
pushed on. (2) Conjunction. — He was beloved, notwithstanding 
he was severe. 

Only. (1) Adjective. — This was his only chance. (2) Adverb. — 
Aid is near ; he has only to ask. (3) Conjunction. — I should 
have chosen the other, only it was frail. 

Since. (1) Preposition. — Since their visit, no word has come. 

(2) Conjunction. — Since you hesitate, I withdraw my offer. 

(3) Adverb. — This happened two years since. (4) Conjunctive 
Adverb. — It is long since I met him. 

Still. (1) Adjective. — All the woods are still. (2) Adverb. — The 
house is .s/«7/ standing. (3) Conjunction. — He is young; still he 
has shown much strength. (4) Verb. — He can still the raging- 
sea. (5) Noun. — In the still of night he ventured out. 

Than. (1) Conjunction. — He is taller than L (2) Preposition. — 
Than whom, Satan excepted, none higher sat. 

1 Near, nigh, next, and like, whether used as adjectives or adverbs, are 
properlj' followed by the preposition to before the name of an object. When 
the to is omitted, some grammarians class near, nU/Ji, next, aud like as 
prepositions. 

MET. ENG. GRAM. — 17 



258 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

That. (1) Adjective. — That life is long which answers life's great 
end. (2) Conjunctive Pronoun. — He is one that lives for others. 
(3) Conjunction. — They say that we are weak. (4) Adjective 
Pronoun. — That is preferred. 

The. (1) Adjective. — The mind. (2) Adverb. — The more, the 
merrier. 

Then. (1) Adverb. — Then shall I know. (2) Conjunction. — If you 
still hope, then I will not despair. 

There. (1) Adverb. — Darkness there might w^ell seem twilight here. 
(2) Expletive. — There are two sides to every question. (3) Inter- 
jection. — There ! there ! be calm. 

Very. (1) Adverb. — Very few men derive pleasure from wealth. 
(2) Adjective. — That is the very book I wanted. 

What. (1) Interrogative Pronoun. — What ^\\\ they do? (2) Inter- 
rogative Adjective. — What insurance had he? (3) Conjunctive 
Pronoun. — I heard what you said. (4) Interjection. — What! 
house and furniture in ashes! (5) Adverb. — What'^ with dili- 
gence and what with others' aid, I have kept my home. 

Where. (1) Interrogative Adverb. — Where may the wearied eye 
repose ? (2) Conjunctive Adverb. — Walk where the flowers shall 
greet thee. 

Which. (1) Interrogative Pronoun. — Which is least costly? (2) In- 
direct Interrogative Pronoun. — I have learned ivhich is most 
costly. (3) Interrogative Adjective. — Which brand do you 
choose? (4) Conjunctive Pronoun. — The road by which we 
came is pleasant. 

While. (1) Noun. — The news gave us comfort for a i^^iY^. (2) Con- 
junction. — He is cautious, while his partner is rash. (3) Verb. — 
We will while away an hour by the lakeside. (4) Conjunctive 
Adverb. — We shall lodge at the Windsor while business holds us 
in this city. 

Who. (1) Interrogative Pronoun. — Who hath sorrow? (2) Indirect 
Interrogative Pronoun. — I know who hath sorrow. (3) Con- 
junctive Pronoun. — We read of one who taught not as the 
scribes. (4) Compound Conjunctive Pronoun. — TTAo steals my 
purse steals trash . 

Yet. (1) Conjunction. — Well inclined, yet sometimes indiscreet. 
(2) Adverb. — Faster and yet faster. 

1 What is here used in the sense ot partly. 



DERIVATIVES. 



259 



CLXX. DERIVATIVES. 

(Review Lesson CXIV., p. 168.) 

Derivatives are of two kinds : (1) Words formed di- 
rectly from other English words ; ^^^ fanciful horn fancy ; 
clownish from clotvn^ etc. (2) Words derived from 
foreign roots by means of prefixes and suffixes ; as, 

Latin, audio, auditum, meaning hear. 
English, audience, auditor, auditory, etc. 

The derivative is frequently a different part of speech 
ivom. the root ; as, 

Fancy (noun), fanciful (adj.). 
Long (adj.), lengthen (verb). 



Exercise I. 



From the following nouns, make corresponding adjec- 
tives, and use each derivative in a sentence. 



sense 


space 


coUege 


toil 


office 


ridicule 


joke 


globe 


court 


irony 


miracle 


angle 


clerk 


science 


drama 


muscle 


apostle 


error 


history 


power 


cylinder 


fraud 


theater 
Exercise 2. 


fruit 


zeal 



Use, in sentences, nouns that correspond to the fol- 
lowing adjectives. 



durable 


barbarous 


young 


pure 


squalid 


generous 


secret 


gluttonous 


resolute 


vacant 


fanatic 


novel 


humble 


secure 


rival 


warm 


brave 


splendid 


private 


accurate 


bold 


dense 


rich 


temperate 


moral 


simple 


solemn 


stupid 


fertile 


civil 



260 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

CLXXI. DERIVATIVES (continued). 
Exercise i. 

ADJECTIVE. NOUN. VERB. 

able ability/ enable 

He was a lad of great ability/. Your help enabled us to 
finish the work. 

Use, in sentences, nouns and verbs that coi-respond to 
the following adjectives. 

able noble rare wide poor just solid 

deep moist legal human neutral bitter timid 

Exercise 2. 

Give nouns corresponding to the following verbs. 

bribe endow insert contrive expose promote 

rob seize contend mock grow break 

Exercise 3. 
Give nouns or adjectives corresponding to the follow- 
ing verbs. 

inquire esteem hate oppose consider prophesy 
argue agree fail cohere declaim qualify 

CLXXII. DERIVATIVES (continued). 

Exercise I. 

Japan^ Japanese, japanning. 



Form other words from the following proper nouns, and 
tell the parts of speech of the derivatives. 

China Rhine Athens Saxony Peru 

Alps Brazil Turkey Troy Cuba 

Poland Genoa Siam Switzerland Naples 



DERIVATIVES. 



261 



Exercise 2. 

The terminations et (ette)^ let, ling, ock, cle, ule, cule, kin, 
signify small, little, or young ; as, duck, duckling. Deriva- 
tives with such terminations are called diminutives. 

Form diminutives from the following nouns. 



globe 


pill 


stream 


goose 


ring 


flower 


hill 


lamb 


plant 


part 


crown 


river 


eagle 


animal 


man 


nest 


year 


plume 


sphere 


sap 



CLXXIII. DERIVATIVES {continued). 
Exercise I. 

Explain the meaning of the suffixes in the following 
derivatives. 



cloudy kingdom 


boyish 


pianist baroness 


ringlet songster 


southward 
Exercise 2. 


marine senseless 


Explain the meaning of the prefixes in the following 


derivatives. 






beset antecedent 


trident 


exodus antidote 


assent cognate 


anarchy 


eulogy reclaim 


adhere submerge 


peninsula 
Exercise 3. 


polygon transatlantic 


Change (or supply) a prefix or 


a suffix in each of the 


following Avords so 


that an opposite meaning will be 


expressed. 






legible selfish 


equality 


polygamy discreet 


legal modesty 


quiet 


arctic faulty 


romantic discord 


official 


normal prove 


just export 


exact 


union piety 


painful credit 


loyal 


remorseful comparable 



262 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

CLXXIV. DERIVATIVES (continued). 
Exercise I. 

Give all the English words you can find that are derived 
from the following Latin nouns. 

annus, year corpus (corps), body litera, letter 

caput (capit), head dens, (dent) tooth mare, sea 

Exercise 2. 

Give English words derived from the following Latin 
nouns. 

manus, hand domus, house auxilium, help 

ngQY, field ira, anger fumus, smoke 

Exercise 3. 
Mention some English words derived from the follow- 
ing Latin nouns and adjectives. 

patria, country rota, wheel rivus, river pecunia, money 

porta, door somnus, sleep urbs, city primus, j^'?-s< 

decern, ten sanus, healthy insula, island aqua, ivater 

CLXXV. DERIVATIVES {continued). 
Exercise. 
Exclude. The prefix ex means from., out ; the root 
claudo (in compounds, dudo') means shut, close. Hence, 
exclude means shut out. 



With the aid of a dictionary when necessary, show, as 
above, the meaning of the prefixes in the words in the 
following list. 

Exclude, include, preclude ; circumference, conference, differ, pre- 
fer ; export, import, transport, support ; postpone, j)ostmeridian ; con- 
sent, dissent ; compose, depose, impose, transpose ; compress, depress, 



DERIVATIVES. 263 

impress, repress, suppress ; deject, eject, inject, reject, subject ; dis- 
pel, propel, expel ; infinite, ingrate, indecorous, inhuman, impious ; 
accord, concord, discord ; adhere, cohere ; circumlocution, circum- 
navigate ; avert, abstain, absent ; arrive, assimilate, attain ; extraordi- 
nary, extra-tropical ; perfect, perform, perennial. 



CLXXVI. DERIVATIVES {continued). 

Exercise. 

Show the meaning of the prefixes in the words below. 

Accretion, excrescence ; insipid, insane, insalubrious ; avocation, 
affix, annex, attend ; anteroom, antecedent ; antarctic, antislavery ; 
concur, correlation ; contradict, controvert ; depend, deduct ; disarm, 
discharge; outrun, outsail; subordinate, submarine; translate, tran- 
scend ; incline, recline, decline ; accept, except, precept, intercept ; 
abstract, extract, attract, retract, subtract, protract, contract, distract ; 
enact, exact, transact, react ; recur, concur, occur, incur. 

CLXXVII. DERIVATIVES {continued). 

Exercise. 

Flexible. The suffix hie (^able, ible^ means that may be; 
the root word flecto means bend ; therefore, flexible means 
that may be bent. 

With the aid of the dictionary, study the words below, 
and show the meanings of their suffixes. 

Flexible, credible, tangible, curable ; primal, final, legal, martial ; 
manikin, hillock, globule, reticule, spiracle, animalcule, lambkin; trus- 
tee, patentee, referee, lessee ; volunteer, engineer, mountaineer ; absti- 
nence, diffidence, transparency; dependent, recipient, evanescent; 
gratify, liquefy, pacify, signify ; magnetic, prismatic, cosmetic, eclectic ; 
fragile, puerile, hostile, docile ; delusion, union, revolution ; reddish, 
feverish ; governor, radiator, testator, lessor, revealer ; verbose, onerous, 
jocose, atrocious ; blamable, soluble ; clerkship, friendship ; dangerous, 
glorious, laborious, gTievous, lustrous. 



264 



EXGLI8H GRAMMAR, PART III. 



CLXXVIII. HELPS TO PUNCTUATION. 

The principal marks used in punctuation are the fol- 
lowing: — 



Comma . . 

Semicolon . 

Colon . . . 

Period . . 



Exclamation point. . ! 

Dash — 

Parentheses ....() 
Brackets [ ] 



Interrogation point . . ? Quotation marks 



The Comma. 

(1) The name of the person addressed (the compella- 
tive) is set off by a comma. 

Examjjles : JNIother, I'm to be queen of the May. 
Tell me, John, what you have found. 

(2) Words, phrases, or clauses, in the same construction, 
are separated by commas. If, however, all the terms are 
separated by conjunctions, the comma may be omitted. 

Examples : A calm, serene, cheerful old age is always useful. 

No one person can excel in music and painting and 
sculpture. 

(3) An appositive, especially when itself modified, is 
commonly set off by commas. 

Examples: Baltimore, the Monumental City, has grown rapidly. 
We, your representatives, shall demand justice. 

(4) Adverbial modifiers, especially when used at the 
beginning of a sentence, or when interrupting its smooth- 
ness, are commonly set off by commas. 

Examples: While your sun prospers in the blue, take warning. 
My wish, nevertheless, was heard and remembered. 



HELPS TO PUNCTUATION. 265 

(5) Two or more pairs of words should be set off in 
pairs by commas. 

Examples: Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my 
hand and my heart to this vote. 
You are a parent or a child, a brother or a sister, a 
husband or a wife, a friend or an associate, of some 
kindred soul. 

(6) A direct quotation should be separated from the 
rest of the sentence by a comma; or, if formally intro- 
duced, by a colon. 

Examples : Then was heard the cry, " Run for your life ! " 

These were the Teacher's words: "Be ye therefore 
perfect." 

(7) A non-restrictive adjective clause (so-called) is set 
off by a comma. On the other hand, a restrictive adjec- 
tive clause should very rarely be so separated. 

Examples : All eyes were now on Philip, w^ho had not spoken. 

There hangs the picture that received the highest 
award at the exhibition. 

Remark.— The importance of this rule, and the frequent neglect 
of it, are a sufficient reason for suggesting that there should be ample 
practice in its use. 

In each case of a non-restrictive, explanatory or additive 
clause, the conjunctive pronoun is nearly equivalent to and 
it^ and he^ or a like expression ; that is, the clause has not 
the function of a part of speech, but is coordinate with 
the main proposition. 

(8) An adjective phrase, when non-restrictive, is sepa- 
rated from its noun by a comma ; but a restrictive adjec- 
tive phrase is not so separated. 

Examples: There is the renowned Montana statue, cast in silver. 
Chicago now appears before the workl as a metropolis 
representing a new civilization. 



266 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART IH. 

The Semicolon. 

Statements so related as hardly to allow a period be- 
tween them, yet having a connection too slight to be 
shown fitly by a comma, are separated by a semicolon. 

Examples : To err is human ; to forgive, divine. 

If you want a thing done, go ; if not, send. 

Remark. — If the members of a compound sentence are connected 
by a conjunction, and if each member is unbroken by conmias, then a 
conima usually serves between the members ; as, The land is evemj where 
richly cultivated, and a happier peasantry nowhere exists. 

But if one or more members are themselves broken by commas, a 
semicolon is indicated between the members; as. Again fragments of 
ice began to fall ; and, already sufficiently startled, we expected to see the 
whole side nearest us crash bodily upon the schooner. 

The Colon. 

(1) A colon is used after the words, thus,, as follows^ 
this,, these, namely, when they formally introduce a speech 
or quotation. 

Examples : Mr. Mills began his speech as follows : " We hold these 
truths to be self-evident," etc. 
His last w^ords were these : " I still live." 

When the speech or quotation begins a new paragraph, 
a dash should follow^ the colon. 

Example: The Hon. James A. Garfield was then introduced and 
spoke as follows : — 

" Socrates recommended to one of his disciples,"etc. 

(2) A colon should be used after a clause which is com- 
plete in itself, but followed, without a conjunction, by 
some remark or illustration. 

Example : The religion of the Greek drama was not a mere form : 
it was full of truth, spirit, and power. 



HELrS TO PUNCTUATION. 267 



The Period. 



The period is used (1) at the close of every assertive or 
imperative sentence; (2) after a title or heading; (3) after 
an abbreviation, — as, ilfrs. Chas. L. Ward^ N. Andove}\ 
Mass. 

Remark. — Shortened proper names, like Hal, Tom, Will, are not 
"abbreviations." Nor should the period be thought necessary after 
such expressions as 8vo, 12mo, or 1st, 2d, 3d, etc. It is often used, 
however, after Roman numerals; as I., TV., X., C, etc. 

The Interrogation Point. 

(1) The interrogation point is placed at the end of an 
interrogative sentence. 

Example : Who was the architect ? 

(2) Inclosed in parentheses, the question mark is some- 
times used to imply doubt. 

Example: We were rudely repulsed by the gentleman (?) who had 
charge of the boats. 

The Exclamation Point. 

(1) The exclamation point is placed after every expres- 
sion that shows great surprise, joy, grief, or other emotion ; 
and this point is appropriate even Avhen the emotion is 
expressed in the form of a question. 

Examples: Honor the Light Brigade, 

Noble six hundred ! 

But what awak'st thou in the heart, O Spring ! 

(2) Inclosed in parentheses, this point is used to express 
doubt or a sneer. 

Example: The disinterested(!) counselor now withdrew. 



268 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

Parentheses. 
Parentheses inclose a remark or explanatory word or 
phrase that interrupts the flow of a sentence. 
Example: After roving in the woods 

('Twas April then), I came and sat 
Below the chestnuts. 

Brackets. 
Brackets inclose words put by one person into the lan- 
guage of another. 

Example : Maguire [his servant] throughout our inarches has 
accompanied me on horseback. 

Remark. — To aid in finding the pronunciation, etymology, etc., 
of a word, the Dictionary incloses certain kinds of facts in paren- 
theses and other kinds in brackets. 

The Dash. 

(1) Dashes are sometimes used in preference to paren- 
theses or commas, to inclose a parenthetical statement. 

Example: The perfect line of rectitude — though desired — was 
not always to be discerned. 

(2) The dash is also used to mark a sudden break in 

the sentence. 

Example: . . . and stopped perplexed 

At what the — Moses — was coming next. 

(3) The dash often precedes an appositive. 
Example: Only great in that strange spell — a name. 

Quotation Marks. 
Marks of quotation inclose the exact words of another 
person. Each part of a divided quotation is separately 
quoted. 

Examples: "Look forth again, Rebecca," said Tvanhoe. 

"Foul craven !" exclaimed Ivanhoe; "does lie blench 
from the helm?" 



HELPS TO PUNCTUATION. 269 

When a quotation includes a quotation, the latter is 
usually inclosed by single marks. 

Example: She wrote to the Brays, "I perceive your reading of 
the golden rule is, ' Do as you are done by.' " 

The Hyphen and Apostrophe. 

The hyphen is used (1) after a syllable at the end of a 
line, when the rest of the word is carried to the next line ; 
(2) between the integral parts of a compound word, as, 
son-in-lmv, twenty-five^ faint-hearted. (See p. 81.) 

The apostrophe, besides its use in forming the possessive 
of nouns and the plurals of letters, figures, etc., often indi- 
cates the omission of one or more letters or figures. 

Examples: What o'clock is't? [What of the clock is it?] 
April 10, '94. 



CLXXIX. PUNCTUATION {continued). 

Exercise. 

If the preceding " Helps to Punctuation " have been 
carefully studied by the pupil, he may now be able to 
place appropriate marks in the following sentences, here 
left free from all punctuation. Let a reason be given for 
each choice. 

1. Friends Romans countrymen lend me your ears 

2. Why Tommy Bancroft didnt you know'it was Sunday morning 
*3. The poker and shovel who had been listening cried Thats an 

excellent idea 

4. One thing alone was wanting a new set of plumes 

5. Your majesty there is no one to blame here 

6. Who touches a hair of yon gray head 
Dies like a dog ]\Iarch on he said 



270 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART II [. 

7. In whatever we attempt attention is of prime importance 

, 8. We had driven through the village across the causeway and up 
the ascent 

9. On the contrary the cause of Freedom won 

10. You wrong me returned his companion 

11. Paul the apostle to the Gentiles stood on Mars Hill 

12. Nature reserves her most dazzling smiles for those who have 

earned them 

13. We were now at an elevation from which we had a fine view of 

the city 

14. Jew Venetian Roman and Spaniard impelled by an insatiate desire 

for wealth were urged on to discovery 

15. The rjiiser grows rich by seeming poor the extravagant man grows 

poor by seeming rich 

16. If thine enemy hunger feed him if he thirst give him drink 

17. Some of the honeycomb flakes were of old date and a deep brown 

color others were beautifully white 

18. And all the question wrangle eer so long is this 

19. What is done for effect is seen to be done for effect what is done 

for love is felt to be done for love 

20. 1st death to fall for Freedoms right 
Hes dead alone who lacks her light 
And murder sullies in Heavens sight 

The sword he draws 
What can alone ennoble fight 
A noble cause 

21. They thought foolish creatures that it was meant for only those 

who preyed upon the conquered people 

22. And we miss our friends ah sadly enough for we have none here 

23. Come Jim said the Doctor Jim was his servant we must ride to 

the village 

24. Water water said the grain 

With its yellow head on high 
And the spreading fertile plain 

Ripening joined the swelling cry 
Water for the grains of gold 
Wealth untold 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 271 



CLXXX. SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

1. The gTowth of higher feeling within us is like the growth of 

faculty, bringing with it a sense of added strength. 

2. It is not ignoble to feel that the fuller life which a sad experience 

has. brought us is worth our own personal share of pain. 

3. You may choose to forsake your duties, and choose not to have 

the sorrow they bring. But what will you find? Sorrow 
without duty, bitter herbs, and no bread with them. 

4. The beginning of hardship is like the first taste of bitter food, — 

it seems for a moment unbearable ; yet, if there is nothing else 
to satisfy our hunger, we take another bite, and find it possible 
to go on. 

5. Duty has a trick of behaving unexpectedly. 

6. 'Tis a strange truth, that only in the agony of parting do we 

look into the depths of love. 

7. To be a poet is to have a soul so quick to discern that no shade 

of quality escapes it. 

8. Try to care for what is best in thought and action. 

9. Her eyes had that liquid look that tells that the mind is full of 

what it has to give out. 

10. I suppose our keen feeling for ourselves might end in giving us a 

keen feeling for others, if, when we are suffering actually, we 
were to consider that others go through the same experience. 

11. Feeling what it is to have spoiled our life may well make us long 

to save other lives from being spoiled. 

12. The only failure a man ought to fear is failure in cleaving to the 

purpose he sees to be best. 

13. A man without hope is of no good use to the world. 

14. Of two evils, the less is always to be chosen. 

15. No profit grows where is no pleasure taken. 

IG. The pessimist, instead of hoping that to-morrow's skies will be 
sunny, prefers to remember that yesterday's skies were clouded. 

17. The hope of good things to come, and the memory of joys we 

have tasted in the past, unite to make attractive what would 
without their influence often be an almost unbearable present. 

18. It is our ever-present experience to desire to continue to live. 

19. 'Tis greatly wise to know, before we're told 
The melancholy news, that we grow old. 



272 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

20. I saw the angelic guards from earth ascend, 
Grieved they must now no longer man attend. 

21. If thou art worn and hard beset 

With sorrows that thou wouldst forget, — 

If thou wouldst read a lesson that will keep 

Thy heart from fainting, and thy soul from sleep, — 

Go to the woods and hills ! No tears 

Dim the sweet look that Nature wears. 

22. Oh, it is excellent 

To have a giant's streng-th ; but it is tyrannous 
To use it like a giant. 

23. When friendships are real, they are not glass threads and frost- 

work, but the solidest things we know. 

24. Better be a nettle in the side of your friend than his echo. 

25. Thou alone 
Keepest judgment for Thine own : 
Only unto Thee is known 

What to pity, what to blame ; 
How the fierce temptation came ; 
What is honor, what is shame. 

26. Couldst thou in vision see 
Thyself the man God meant. 
Thou never more wouldst be 
The man thou art, content. 

27. No radiant pearl which crested fortune wears, 
No gem that twinkling hangs from beauty's ears, 
Not the bright stars which night's blue arch adorn, 
Nor rising suns that gild the vernal morn, 

Shine wdth such luster as the tear that flows 
Down virtue's manly cheek for others' woes. 

28. Leaves have their time to fall, 

And flowers to wither at the north wind's breath, 
And stars to set ; — but all, 

Thou hast all seasons for thine own, O Death ! 

29. The soul of music slumbers in the shell 

Till waked and kindled by the master's spell ; 
And feeling hearts, touch them but rightly, pour 
A thousand melodies unlieard before. 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 273 

30. Just above yon sandy bar 

As the day grows fainter and dimmer, 
Lonely and lovely, a single star 

Lights the air with a dusky glimmer. 

31. Our faculties do not always play us true. 

32. One must be poor to know the luxury of giving. 

33. Our minds get tricks and attitudes, as our bodies do. 

34. Party men always hate a slightly differing friend more than a 

downright enemy. 

35. The weeds, you see, have taken the liberty to grow, and I thought 

it unfair in me to prejudice the soil towards roses and straw- 
berries. 

36. AVhen a man is tired of what he is, by a natural perversity he sets 

up for what he is not. 

37. Concert fires people to a certain fury of performance they can 

never reach alone. 

38. 'Tis not new facts that avail, but the heat to dissolve everybody's 

facts. 

39. Education attempts to change what is into what ought to be. 

40. Those things which are said to be done by Nature are done by 

Divine Art. 

41. Let every one be true to himself. 

42. He wanted to live because he wanted to work. 

43. This botched work of thine 

Shows that thy mind is distant from thy task. 

44. Some one said to a young author, "Do not pull up your shop 

curtains until you have something to show." 
4.5. I break the chains of slavery to error, that I may become the 
servant of truth. 

46. He does me a double ^vi'ong 

That wounds me with the flatteries of liis tongue. 

47. Victor Hugo declared that he was sure he should live beyond the 

grave, because he felt his soul to be full of hymns and poems he 
had not had time to write. 

48. Some questions should be left to the unfettered play of individual 

enterprise, which is to the community what unconscious vital 
activities are to man. 

MET. ENG. GRAM. 18 , 



274 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 

49. That we should do unto others as we would have them do to us, is 

not a mere counsel to individual perfection, but it is the law to 
which we must conform social institutions and national policy, 
if we would secure the blessings of abundance and peace. 

50. If we are with the right and for it, though all the world have gone 

over to the other side, the long line of ancestral and glorified 
men are behind us, — troops of beautiful, tall angels, to enshield 
us from all wrong. 

51. In the long run, the race is sure to find itself held fast in the 

grasp of eternal truth. 

52. They who hasten to restrain 
Rising wrath, in Paradise shall reign. 

53. I see, in this world, two heaps, — one of human happiness, and one 

of misery; now, if I can take but the smallest bit from the second 
heap and add it to the first, I carry a point. If, as I go home, 
a child has dropped a halfpenny, and, by giving it another, I can 
wipe away its tears, I feel that I have done something. 

54. Following a multitude to do evil does not make it right. 

55. Praising what is lost makes the remembrance dear. 

56. There is no cure for things that are not to be remedied. 

57. True hope is swift, and flies with swallow's wings ; 
Kings it makes gods, and meaner mortals, kings. 

58. Money may be a beautiful thing : it is we who make it grimy. 

59. Next to the illusion that money can confer happiness, is the illu- 

sion that the giving of money is the only form that practical 
helpfulness can take. 

60. The tree of deepest root is found 
Least willing still to quit the ground ; 
'Twas therefore said by ancient sages 

That love of life increased with years, 
So much that in our latter stages, 
When pains grow sharp and sickness rages, 

The greatest love of life appears. 

61. They are as sick that surfeit with too much, 
As they that starve with nothing. 

62. Let them obey that know not how to rule. 

63. What fates impose, that men must needs abide ; 
It boots not to resist both wind and tide. 



SELECTIONS FOR ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 275 

64. I dare do all that may become a man. 

65. There is a tide in the affairs of men, 
Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune ; 
Omitted, all the voyage of their life 

Is bound in shallows and in miseries. 

66. His life was gentle ; and the elements 

So mixed in him, that Nature might stand up 
And say to all the world, " This was a man." 

67. To thine own self be true ; 

And it must follow, as the night the day, 
Thou canst not then be false to any man. 

68. We, ignorant of ourselves, -- 
Beg often our own harms, which the wise powers 

Deny us for our good ; so find w^e profit 
By losing of our prayers. 

69. Pleasure and revenge 

Have ears more deaf than adders to the voice 
Of any true decision. 

70 To persist 

In doing wrong extenuates not wrong. 
But makes it much more heavy. 

71. I confess, it is my shame to be so fond ; but 
It is not in my virtue to amend it. 

72. Once or twice in a season I go down the bay, on breezy mornings, 

and see these fine fellows of the Yacht Club sail their craft ; 
and I do believe that if they were doing it for their own selves, 
instead of for my enjoyment, they w^ould not exert themselves 
more. 

73. I sometimes fancy that I enjoy plowing and mowing more when 

other people are engaged in them than if I were working my- 
self. 

74. Little did I suppose that in the wild woods of America I was to 

meet with a man whose eloquence would give to the passion of 
our Sa^dour a new and more sublime pathos than I had ever 
before witnessed. 



276 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 



CLXXXL LISTS OF PREFIXES (/or Reference). 





Ajnglo-Saxox. 


EXAMPLES. 


a = in, on, away- 




abed, afield 


after = behind 




afternoon 


be = by, to make 




belittle 


en (em) = in, on, to make 




entrap 


for = against, utterly 




forbid, forlorn 


fore = before 




forearm 


mid = middle 




midsummer 


mis = wrong 




misname 


n(e) = not 




never, naught 


out = beyond 




outrun 


over = above, in excess 




overreach 


to = the, this 




to-night 


un = not 


' 


unkind 


under - beneath 




undervalue 


with = against 


Latin. 


withstand 


a, ab, or abs = from or aw 


ay 


abrupt 


ad, ac, af, ag, etc. = to 




adhere 


ante = before 




anteroom 


bene = well 




benediction 


bi(bis) = two, twice 




biped 


circum =: around 




circumnavigate 


con, com, co, cog, col, cor : 


= with or together 


colloquy 


counter, contra = against 




contradict 


de = do^ai or from 




deduct 


dis, di, dif = away or asunder 


disperse 


e, ec, ef, ex = out 




expend 


extra = beyond 




extradition 


in, il, im, ir (before a verb) = in or into 


import 


in, ig, il, im, ir (before an 


adjective) = not 


immoral 


inter = between 




intersperse 


manu = by hand 




manufacture, manumit 


non = not 




nonsense 



LIHTS OF PREFIXES. 



277 



EXAMPLES. 



ob, oc, of, op = against 


oppose 


pene = almost 


penumbra 


per = through 


permit 


post = after 


postscript 


pre = before 


preposition 


preter = more than 


preternatural 


pro = forth or forward 


proceed 


re = back or again 


return 


retro = backwards 


retrogression 


se = aside or apart 


secede 


semi = half 


semicircle 


sub, sue, suf , sug, sup = under 


submarine 


subter = under 


subterfuge 


super, sur = above, over 


supervisor 


trans = across 


transmit 


ultra = beyond 


ultramarine 


vice = instead of 


vice-president 


Greek. 




a, an = without, not 


apathy, anarchy 


amphi = around 


amphitheater 


ana = up, through 


analysis 


anti, ant = opposite, against 


antidote, antarctic 


apo = away 


apostrophe 


cata = down, over 


catastrophe 


dia = through 


diameter, diaphanous 


dys = bad, ill 


dyspepsia, dysentery 


epi = upon 


epitaph, epidemic 


eu = well 


eulogy, euphonic 


hemi = half 


hemisphere 


h}^er = over, beyond 


hypercritical 


hypo = under 


hypocrite 


mono = one 


monotonous 


para = beside, like 


parallel, parody 


peri = around 


perigee, perimeter 


poly = many 


polygon, polytechnic 


syn, syl, sym = with, together 


synthesis, sympathy 


tele = far, far off 


telegraph, telephone 



278 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART lii. 



CLXXXII. LISTS OF SUFFIXES {for Reference). 

The following lists contain some of the most common 
suffixes, with their meanings ; — 



Anglo-Saxois". 

ar, er, or = an agent or doer 

ard, art = one who 

dom = dominion, condition 

en = to make, made of 

ery = place, condition 

fold = times 

ful = full of 

hood = state of 

ish = like, somewhat 

kin=: little 

less = without 

let, ling = little 

ly r= like, denoting manner 

ness = state of being 

ock = little 

ship = office of 

some = full of, like 

ster = one who 

ward = direction of 

y = belonging to, full of, having the qualities of 



EXAMPLES. 

liar, baker, sailor 

drunkard, braggart 

kingdom, freedom 

blacken, wooden 

scenery 

manifold 

graceful 

childhood 

childish 

lambkin 

penniless 

streamlet, gosling 

manly 

soreness 

hillock 

clerkship 

venturesome 

punster 

homeward 

stony 



Latin. 



able, ible = able to be, fit to be 

acy = being, office of 

al = belonging to 

an, ian, ean = belonging, one who 

ance, ancy = state of being 

ant = one who 

ary = place where 

ate = one who 

ble = that may be, fit to be 



culpable 

accuracy, curacy 

personal 

American 

perseverance 

assistant 

granary 

delegate 

soluble 



LISTS OF SUFFIXES. 



279 





EXAMPLES. 


cle, cule = little 


animalcule 


eer = one who 


engineer 


ence, ency = state or quality of 


potency 


ent = being, one that 


resident 


er = one who, that which 


officer 


fy = to m^ke 


nullify 


ic, ical = pertaining to 


spherical 


ice = a being, the thing that 


service 


id = being 


frigid 


ile = like, ready to be 


ductile 


ine = belonging to 


canine 


ion = act of, state of being 


protection 


ite = one who 


favorite 


ment = act of, result of 


commandment 


or = one who, that which 


instructor 


ory = place where 


dormitory 


ose, ous = full of, abounding in 


adventurous 


tude = state of being 


rectitude 


ty, ity = state of being 


purity 


ule = little 


globule 


Greek. 




ac, ic = pertaining to 


generic 


archy = government 


monarchy 


cracy = government 


democracy 


graphy = writing 


telegraphy 


ic, ics = science of 


civics 


ise, ize = to make 


minimize 


ism = doctrine, state of being 


Calvinism 


ist = one who 


evangelist 


itis = inflammation of 


bronchitis 


logy = science of 


geology 


French. 




age = state of being, that which 


baggage 


ee = one to whom 


trustee 


eer, ier = one who 


volunteer 


ess = female 


shepherdess 


ette = little 


statuette 



280 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR, PART III. 



CLXXXIIL LATIN AND GREEK ROOTS {for Reference), 

In the list below, only that part of the root word is 
given which is used in the derivation of the English 
word. This part may be called the base,, to distinguish 
it from what is strictly called the root. 



BASES. 

ag, act = do 

am, amat = love 

anima = mind, soul 

anil, annii = a year 

and, audit = hear 

brev, bref = short 

bi, bis = twice, two 

cap, capt, cept = take 

cred = believe 

ciiiT, curs = run 

die, diet = say 

due, duct = lead 

fac, fact = do, make 

junct — join 

lect = read 

loc = a place 

loqui = speak 

noni, iiomin = a name 

onini = all 

or, orat = speak, pray 

phone = sound, the voice 

polls = a city 

poten(t) = powerful 

prim = first 

scrib, script = write, draw 

spir, spirat = breathe 

tract = draw 

terra — the earth 

voc, vocat — call 

ver = true 



EXAMPLES. 

enact 

amiable, amateur 

animal, animation 

annual, anniversary 

audible, audience, auditor 

brevity, brief 

biped, biscuit 

captive, receptacle 

creed, credential 

current, cursory 

diction, predict 

conductor, introduce 

manufacture 

conjunction, subjunctive 

lecture 

local, locomotive 

colloquy 

noun, cognomen 

omnibus, omnipotent 

adore, oration 

telephone, phonograph 

metropolis 

omnipotent, potential 

primer, primate 

transcribe, subscribe 

inspire, expire, conspirator 

attract, subtraction 

terrestrial, Mediterranean 

revoke, vocation 

aver, veracity 



INDEX. 



.1, article, 42,43. 
About, Uses of, 256. 
Above, Uses of, 256. 
Abstract uoims, 187. 
Accusative-objective, 244. 
Active voice, defined, 149. 
Adjective clauses, 71, 72, 253. 

modifiers, 44, 118. 

phrases, 64, 206. 

pronouns, 201-203. 
Adjectives, 38-41, 189. 

Classes of, 115, 116. 

Comparison of, 119-123. 

Definitive, 115. 

Descriptive, 115. 

ending in en, 115 n. 1. 

Interrogative, l!t9, 200. 

Irregular comparison of, 123. 

Numeral, 115, 116, 117. 

Passive verbal, 221. 

position as modifiers, 118. 

Predicate, 61. 

Pronominal, 201. 

Proper, 115. 

Uses of, 38. 

Verbal, 131, 132, 152. 
Adverbial clauses, 71, 72, 228, 252. 

modifiers, 57-60. 

phrases, 64, 207. 
Adverbs, 57-63. 

Comparison of, 124. 

Conjunctive, 20:3-205, 213, 215, 253. 

introducing noun clauses, 211. 

Modal, 63. . 

modifying adjectives, 59. 

modifying adverbs, 60. 

modifying verbs, 58. 

of number and order, 63. 

of time, manner, place, and degree, 
57, 62. 
A/te)', conjunctive adverb, 204, 256. 
Again, Uses of, 257. 
Agreement of verb with subject, 165- 

167, 196. 
Agreement of pronoun with ante- 
cedent, 195. 
All, Uses of, 201, 256. 
Analysis, 18, 21, 24, 25, 73, 74, 7(5, 83- 
89, 172-175, 181-185, 205, 271-275. 



Analysis of complex sentences, 183-185. 

of compound sentences, 182. 

of simple sentences, 181, 182. 
Ancient or solemn form of verbs, 161, 

240. 
A)iother, indefinite pronoun, 201, 202. 
Antecedents, 33. 

Agreement of pronouns with, 195. 

of ivhat and lohatever never ex- 
pressed, 198. 

Singular and plural, 105, 166. 
Any, Compounds of, 201. 
Apostrophe, Derivation of, 111. 

in possessive case, 110, 111. 

Rules for use of, 26i>. 
Appear, incomplete verb, 54. 
Appositive clauses, 210. 

modifiers, 43. 
Appositives, Cases of, 113, 114. 

like adjectives, 43, 44. 
Articles, 42, 43. 

a, an, the, classed as adjectives, 42. 

Definite, 42. 

Errors in use of, 43. 

Indefinite, 42. 
As, conjunction, 252. 

conjunctive adverb, 204. 

conjunctive pronoun, 192, 253. 

Uses of, 256. 
As — .so, correlatives, 249. 
^.s" loell — as, correlatives, 249. 
Aspirates, or non-sonants, 10, 11. 
Assimilation of sounds, 11. 
Attributes, 54, 146, 148, 245, 246. 
Attributive verbs, 146-148. 
Auxiliaries, 156, 217-221. 

in potential verb-phrases, 221. 

not expressing time, 221, 222. 

Be, as auxiliary verb, 154, 217. 
as complete verb, 55. 
as incomplete verb, .54. 
as principal verb, 219. 
Conjugation of, 157-161, 233, 234, 

235, 236, 237. 
followed by the objective, 242. 
in the formation of passive voice, 

152, 153. 
in verb-phrases, 219. 



281 



282 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Be, with participles, 220. 
Become, incomplete A^erb, 54. 
Before, conjunctive adverb, 204. 
Being, with perfect participle, 220, 221. 
Both, Uses of, 257. 
Both — and, correlatives, 249. 
Brackets, Rules for use of, 268. 
But, Uses of, 257. 

Can, auxiliary verb, 217. 

Meaning of, 221. 

Use of, 219. 
Cardinal numerals, 116. 
Case, 106-114. 

how denoted in nouns, 106. 

Nominative, 107, 

Objective, 107. 

of appositives, 113, 114. 

of personal pronouns, 112, 113. 

Possessive, 108, 110, 111. 
Classification, determined by use, 78, 

79, 256-258. 
Clausal analysis, 73, 74. 
Clauses, Adjective, 253. 

Adjective and adverbial, 71, 72, 228, 
252. 

Appositive, 210. 

Causal, Conditional, etc., 252. 

Noun, 72, 73, 209-215, 241, 242. 

Restrictive and non-restrictive, 
216, 217. 

Substantive, 209. 
Coalescence of sounds, 11. 
Cognate consonants, 10. 
Collective nouns, 29, 30. 
Colon, Rules for use of, 266. 
Comma, Rules for use of, 264, 265. 

used with appositives, 44. 

used with compellatives, 22. 

used with interjections, 77. 
Comma used with non-restrictive 

clauses, 216. 
Common nouns, 27-29. 
Comparative degree of adjectives, 120. 

of adverbs, 124. 
Comparison of adjectives, 119-123. 
Comparison of adverbs, 124. 
Compellatives, 22, 23. 
Comi^lement of he in objective noun 
phrase, 242. 

of copulative verbs, 146. 

of transitive verbs, 51, 52. 

Predicate, 51. 
Complete verbs, 50-55, 146. 
Complex sentences, 73, 180. 

Analysis of, 183-185. 
Compound adjectives before singular 

and plural nouns, 117. 
Compound complex sentences, 180. 
Compound conjunctive adverbs, 253. 



Compound conjunctive pronouns, 197- 

199, 213. 
Compound elements, 2n0, 251. 

personal pronouns, 36, 37, 191. 

phrases and clauses, 250. 

predicates, 250. 

words, 81-83, 168, 169. 
Compound sentences, 69-71, 179. 

Analysis of, 182. 

with complex members, 74. 
Conditional clauses, difference be- 
tween indicative and subjunc- 
tive, 227. 
Conjugations, 156-164, 232-239, 241. 
Conjunctions, 67-69. 

connecting words and phrases, 68. 

Correlative, 249. 

omitted before subjunctive clause, 
228. 

sometimes unexpressed in com- 
pound sentences, 179. 

Subordinate, 213, 215, 252. 
Conjunctive adverbs, 203-205. 

Compound, 253. 

introducing noun clauses, 213, 215. 
Conjunctive pronouns, 75, 192-195, 253. 

contrasted with personal pronouns, 
196. 

in nominative case, 195. 

introducing noun clauses, 213, 215. 
Connectives, Coordinate, 245. 

Subordinate, 204, 252-254. 
Consonants, 9-11. 

Assimilation of, 11. 

Cognate, 10. 
Continue, incomplete verb, 54. 
Coordinate connectives, 248. 

parts, 250. 
Copula, 148. 

Copulative verbs, 54, 146-148. 
Correlative conjunctions, 249. 
Could, auxiliary verb, 217, 219, 221, 222. 

Use of, 219. 

Dash, Rules for use of, 268. 
Dative-objective, 244 n. 1. 
Declarative sentence, 14. 

Arrangement of, 19. 

shortened to imperative, 23. 

Two parts of, 15. 

used as exclamatory, 24. 
Declension, 94. 
Defective verbs, 145. 
Definite article, 42. 
Definitive adjectives, 115 and n. 2. 
Demonstrative pronouns, 201. 
Derivatives, 93, 94. 1(58-172, 259-263. 
Descriptive adjectives, 115 and n. 2. 
Did, indicating past time. 222. 

in interrogative sentences, 20. 



INDEX. 



283 



Digraph, 10. 
Diminutives, 261. 
Diplithongs, 10. 
Direct objects, 243. 

quotations, 79-81. 
Dissyllables, 13. 
• Do, as auxiliary verb, 1.54, 217. 

as principal verb, 219. 

indicating present or indefinite 
time, 222. 
Do, does, in interrogative sentences, 20. 
Drive, Conjugation of, 238, 239. 

Each, indefinite pronoun, 201. 
Each other, reciprocal pronoun, 202. 
Either, indefinite pronoun, 201. 

Uses of, 257. 
Either— or, correlatives, 249. 
Elementary sounds, 9. 
Errors to be avoided, 43, 202. 
Except, introducing subjunctive, 22(3. 
Exclamation point, after v/ritten sen- 
tences, 177. 

Rules for use of, 267. 

with interjections and Oh, 77. 
Exclaraatorv sentences, 24. 
Expletive, 210. 

Factitive objects, 245. 
Fast, Uses of, 257. 
Feel, incomplete verb, 54. 
Few, indefinite pronoun, 201. 

plural, 166. 
For, conjunction, 252. 

Uses of, 258. 
Future perfect tense, 224. 
Future tense, 129, 130. 
Future time, expressed by root and -s 
form of verb, 129 n. 1. 

expressed by shall or icill with root 
infinitive, 223. 

Gender, 101-103. 

four kinds of, 101. 

of nouns, how indicated, 101, 102. 

of personal pronouns, 103. 

of pronouns agreeing with nouns, 
101. 
Grammatical equivalents, 242. 
Greek Roots, 280. 

Had, with perfect participle, 224. 
Have, auxiliary verb, 217. 

Conjugation of, 162, 163, 2.32, 233, 
235-237. 

in verb-phrases, 219. 

principal verb, 219. 

with perfect participle, 220, 223, 224. 
Hoiv, introducing noun clauses, 211. 
Hoiv, used in phrases, 215. 



Hyphen, in compound words, 81, 82. 
in numeral adjectives, 117. 
Rules for use of, 269. 

//■, introducing subjunctive, 226. 
Imperative mode, 154. 
Imperative sentences, 14, 23, 24. 

how changed to declarative, 23. 

Subject of, 154. 

used as exclamatory, 24. 
Incomplete verbs, 50-55, 146. 
Indefinite article, 42. 

pronouns, 201. 
Indicative mode, 154. 
Indirect objects, 243, 244 n. 1. 

quotations, 79-81. 
Infinitive, 133-137, 229-231. 

as object of preposition for, 231. 

expressing purpose, 231. 

in i?ig, 133. 

in verlD-phrases, 218, 221. 

phrase, 134, 135, 2U(), 207, 229. 

Root, 135. 

Subject of, 242. 

Uses of, 134, 135, 206, 207, 229, 231. 
Inflection, defined, 93, 94. 

Derivation of word, 93 n. 1. 

of nouns, 94, 188. 

of pronouns, 94, 112. 
Interjections, 77. 

Interrogation point, after written sen- 
tences, 177, 267. 

expressing doubt, 267. 
Interrogative adjectives, 199, 200. 

pronouns, 199, 200, 213. 

sentences, 14, 20, 21, 24, 267. 
Intransitive verbs, 48-50. 

Complete and incomplete, 53. • 

Objects of, 49. 

have no passive voice, 150, 151. 

used in verb-phrases, 152. 

used transitively, 49. 
Irregular verbs, 138, 139. 

derived from Anglo-Saxon, 138 u. 1 . 

Tables of, 140-145. 
It, as an introductory word or exple- 
tive, 210. 

as substitute for subject, 213. 
Its, History of, 104. 

Language, defined, 13. 

Oral and written, 13. 
Latin and Greek roots, 280. 
Lest, introducing subjunctive, 226. 
Letters, divided into vowels and con- 
sonants, 9. 
Like, Uses of, 2.57. 
Liquids, 11. 

Long and short vowels, 9, 10. 
Look, incomplete verb, 54. 



284 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Many, indefinite prononn, 201. 

always plural, 166. 
May, auxiliary verb, 217. 

Meaning of, 221. 

Use of, 219. 
Might, auxiliary verb, 217. 

Meaning of, 221. 

Use of, 219. 
Mine, Use of, 112. 
Modal adverbs, 63. 
Mode, 154, 155. 

Imperative, 154. 

Indicative, 154. 

Subjunctive, 225-228. 
Modifiers, 52. 

Adjective, 118. 

Adverbial, 57-60. 

Appositive, 43. 
Monosyllables, 13. 
Most, plural or singular, 166. 
Move, Conjugation of, 163, 164, 234, 

235, 237. 
Much, Uses of, 257. 
Must, auxiliary verb, 217. 

Meaning of, 221. 

Use of, 219. 

Near, Uses of, 257. 
Neither, indefinite pronoun, 201. 
Neither — nor, correlatives, 249. 
Nigh, Uses of, 257. 
No, Compounds of, 201. 
Nominative case of nouns and pro- 
nouns, 107. 

independent, 22 n, 1. 
None, adjective and pronoun, 201, 202. 
Non-restrictive clauses, 216, 217. 
Non-sonants, or aspirates, 10. 
Not only — hut also, correlatives, 249. 
Notioithstanding , Uses of, 257. 
Nouns, 26-31. 

Abstract, 187. 

as class names, 28, 29. 

as special names, 28, 29. 

Case forms of, lOli-108. 

Collective, 29, 30. 

Common, 27-29. 

Gender of, 101-103. 

Inflection of, 105, 188. 

names of qualities and conditions, 
187. 

not inflected to denote person, 105. 

Person of, 104, 105. 

Plural, 26, 34. 

Predicate, 54. 

Proper, 27-29. 

Properties and relations of, 106. 

Singular, 26, 34. 

used absolutely, 207. 

used as adverbs, 66. 



Nouns used in adverbial phrases, 207. 

Verbal, 133-137. 
Noun clauses, 72, 73, 209-215. 

Objective, 241, 242. 

Uses of, 214. 
Number, Adjectives of, 38. 

how indicated, 95. 

of nouns and pronouns, 26, 34, 94— 
100, 117. 

of verbs, 157, 165-167. 

Singular and plural, 94, 95. 
Numeral adjectives, defined, 115. 

Classes of, 116, 117. 

0, Oh, interjections, 77. 
Object, complement of transitive verb, 
52, 167. 

Different forms of, 246, 247. 

Direct and indirect, 243, 244. 

Factitive, 245. 

of active voice becomes subject of 
passive, 149. 

of prepositions, 66, I.jO, 151, 167. 
Objective attribute, 215, 246. 

case of nouns and pronouns, 107. 
Objective noun clause, 241, 242. 
O/and 's in same sentence. 111. 

used to denote possession. 111. 
One, indefinite pronoun, 201. 

Possessive case of, 202. 
One another, reciprocal pronoun, 202. 
Only, Uses of, 257. 
Or, Either, correlatives, 249. 
Oral Language, 13. 
Ordinal numerals, 116. 
Other, indefinite pronoun, 201. 

Possessive case of, 202. 
Ought, followed by perfect infinitive, 
145. 

Parentheses, Rules for use of, 268. 
Parsing, 86-89, 94. 172-175, 271-275. 
Participle, 131, 132. 

Compound, 132. 

Forms of the, 131, 132. 

Imperfect, 131. 

in passive form of verb, 132. 

in progressive form of verb, 131. 

Passive, 221. 

Perfect, 131, 132, 152, 153, 223, 224. 

Perfect, with have, 223, 224. 
Passive form of verb. Formation of, 
160. 

participle, 221. 

verbal adjective, 221. 

voice, 149, 150-153, 244. 
Past perfect tense, 224. 

time, expressed bv inflection of root 
verb, 129. 
Perfect participle, l.')2, 153. 



INDEX. 



285 



Perfect participle with auxiliary, 239. 

with hp, 239. 

with had, 224. 

with hare, 13S, 223, 224, 239. 

with fihall have or loill have, 224. 
Perfect tenses, 223-225. 
Period, after written sentence, 177. 

Rules for use of, 207. 
Person, 104, 105. 

of verbs, 157. 
Personal pronouns, 34-31), 190-192. 

Cases of, 112, 113. 

Comi)OUM(l, 30, 37. 

contrasted with conjunctive, 196, 
197. 

forms in possessive, 112, 1{)0. 

Gender of, 103. 

Inflections of, 112. 

Number of, 99, 100. 
Personification, 104. 
Phrases, ()3-65, 206-208. 

Adjective, 206. 

Adverbial, 207. 

Infinitive, 206, 207. 

Kinds of, 64. 

used as adjectives or nouns, 200. 

used instead of conjunctions, 253. 
Plural number, 26, 29," 34, 94-100, 106. 
Plurals, Double, 98. 

Irregular, 97-99. 

of compound words, 99. 

of letters, figures, etc., 98. 

of nouns. Rules for, 95-98. 

of titles, 99. 

used as singulars, 98. 
Polysyllables, 13. 
Positive degree of adjectives, 120. 
Possessive case, expression of, 106, 110, 
111. 

in relation to verbal nouns, 202. 

of compound words, 110. 

of nouns joined by or, nor, and, 110. 

of nouns and pronouns, 108. 
Possessive form, seldom found in 
names of inanimate objects, 188. 
Potential verb-phrases, 219, 221, 222. 
Predicate, 15. 

Compound, 181. 

Entire, 45. 

Simple, 54. 
Predicate adjectives, 54, 55. 

complement, 51. 

nouns, 54, 55. 
Prefixes, 168, 169. 

Lists of, 276, 277. 
Prepositions, 66. 

Objects of, 66. 
Present or indefinite time, 129. 

historical tense, 128. 

perfect tense, 223, 224. 



Present tense, indefinite, 128. 
Primitive words, 1(58, 169. 
Principal verb, 217. 
Progressive form of verb, 100. 
Pronominal adjectives, 201. 
Pronoun complement after intransi- 
tive verbs, 108. 
Pronouns, Adjective, 201-203. 

Antecedents of, 33. 

Case forms of, 108. 

Compound conjunctive, 197-199, 21.".. 

Compound personal, 36, 'M, 191. 

Conjunctive, 75, 192-195, 1«I7-199, 
213, 253. 

Demonstrative, 201. 

Errors in use of, 202. 

Gender of, 101-104. 

Indefinite, 201. 

Interrogative, 199, 200, 213. 

Person of, 104, 105. 

Personal, 32, 34-36, 190-192. 

Properties of, 10(5. 

Reciprocal, 202. 

relations to other words, 100. 

Relative, 75. 

Singular and Plural, 34. 

used absolutely, 207. 
Proper adjectives, 115. 

nouns, 27-29. 
Propositions, 17. 
Punctuation, 264-270. 

Apostrophe, 110, 111, 269. 

P>rackets, 2<)8. 

Colon, 266. 

Comma, 22, 44, 77, 216, 204, 265. 

Dash, 208. 

Exclamation point, 177, 207. 

Hyphen, 81, 82, 117,209. 

Interrogation point, 177, 207. 

Parentheses, 208. 

Period, 177, 207. 

Quotation marks, 208, 209. 

Semicolon, 200. 

Quotation marks. Rules for use of, 

208, 209. 
Quotations, Direct and indirect, 79-81. 

Reciprocal pronouns, 202. 

Reflexive use of pronouns, 30. 

Regular verbs, 138, 1.39. 

Relative pronouns, 75. 

B^main, incomplete verb, 54. 

Restrictive clauses, 210,217. 

Reviews, 31, 41, 91-93, 114, 18;, 215. 
222, 241. 

Root Infinitive, preceded by preposi- 
tion, 135. 
used as noun, 1.35. 

Roots, Latin and Greek, 280. 



!86 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Root words, 94, 168. 

Rules for Spelling, 254, 255. 

Seem, incomplete verb, 54. 
Selections for analysis and parsing, 

87-89, 172-175, 271-275. 
Semicolon, Rules for use of, 2((). 
Sentences, 14-25, 177-185. 

Analysis of, 18, 181-185. 

Classification of, 179-181. 

Complete, 49. 

Complete and incomplete, 177. 

Complex, 73, 180. 

Compound, 179. 

Compound-complex, 180. 

Declarative, 14. 

Exclamatory, 24. 

Imperative, 14, 23, 24. 

Interrogative, 14. 

Natural order of, 18. 

Predicate of, 15. 

Simple, 179. 

Simple and Compound, 09-71. 

Subject of, 15. 
(Severed, always plural, IGG. 

indefinite pronoun, 201. 
Shall, auxiliary verb, 217. 

distinguished from ivlll, 129, 130. 

expressing futurity, 222, 22;>. 

Meaning of, 219. 

with root infinitive, 219. 
Shall have, with perfect participle, 

224. 
Should, auxiliary verb, 217. 

Meaning of, 221. 

Use of, 219. 
Simple predicates, 54. 
Simple pronouns, used reflexively, 3(5. 
Simple sentences, 69-71. 

Analysis of, 181, 182. 

contain but one proposition, 179. 

Subject and Predicate of, 69. 
Since, conjunctive adverb, 204. 

Uses of, 257. 
Singular number of nouns and pro- 
nouns, 26, 29, 30, 34, 94-97, 99, 
100, 106, 117. 
S)neri, incomplete verb, 54. 
So — that, correlatives, 249. 
Some, Compounds of, 201. 

indefinite pronoun, 201. 

plural or singular, 166, 202. 
Sonants or subvocals, 10, 11. 
Sound, incomplete verb, 54. 
Sounds, 9, 11. 
Speech, Parts of, 26, 78. 
Spelling, Rules for, 254, 255. 
Still, Uses of, 257. 
Subject, 15-17. 

Attributes of, 54. 



Subject, Entire, 45. 

in imperative sentence, 23. 

in passive voice becomes object in 
active, 149. 

interchangeable with complement, 
108. 

of infinitive, 242. 

of simple sentence may be com- 
pound, 181. 

of verb must be in nominative case, 
167. 

Simple or unmodified, 45. 

Singular and plural, 165, 166. 
Subjunctive mode, 225-228. 

Peculiarities of, 226-228. 

Words introducing, 226. 
Subordinate conjunctions, 213, 252. 

connectives, 204, 252-254. 
Substantive clauses, 209. 
Subvocals or sonants, 10, 11. 
Such, indefinite pronoun, 201. 
Suffixes, defined, 168. 

Lists of, 278, 279. 
Superlative degree, 120. 
Synthesis, 76. 

Taste, incomplete verb, 54. 
Tenses, 125-130, 222-225. 

Future, 129, 130. 

Future perfect, 224. 

Past, 127, 128. 

Past perfect, 224. 

Perfect, 223-225. 

Present, 126-128. 

Present perfect, 223, 224. 

Primary, 125-127. 
Than, with comparative degree, 120. 

Uses of, 257. 
That, conjunction, 213 n. 1, 215. 

conjunctive pronoun, 75, 192, 193. 

demonstrative pronoun, 201. 

introducing indirect quotations, 80. 

introducing noun clauses, 210, 211. 

object of preposition following it, 
194. 

subordinate conjunction, 213. 

Uses of, 258. 
The, article, 42, 43. 

Uses of, 258. 
Then, Uses of , 258. 
There, Uses of, 55, 258. 
Thine, Use of , 112. 

This, these, those, demonstrative pro- 
nouns, 201. 
Though, introducing subjunctive, 226. 
Till, conjunctive adverb, 204. 
To, omitted after auxiliary, 218. 

omitted after bid, dare, etc., 229. 

omitted before infinitive, 219. 
Torjether loith, followed by object, 166. 



INDEX. 



287 



Transitive verbs, 48-50. 

used intransitively, 59. 
Trisyllables, i:i. 

Unless, introducing subjunctive, 220. 
Until, conjunctive adverb, 204. 

Verbal adjectives, 131, 132, 130, 152, 

153/219,221. 
Verbal nouns, 133-137, 229. 

contrasted with verbal adjectives, 
13(5. 

in but, 133, 135, 229. 

preceded by possessive case, 202. 
Verbals, Phrases contaiinng, 20(5. 

Phrases used as, 135. 
Verb forms. Ancient or solemn, 15G. 

Common and em[)liatic, 15G. 
Verb-phrases, 47, 48, 15(5, 218. 

Ancient or solemn form of, 161. 

Infinitives in, 218. 

Potential, 219, 221, 222. 

Separation of parts in, 47. 

Verbal adjectives in, 219. 
Verbs, Active and passive voice of, 
149. 

Agreement with subject, 165-167. 

Ancient forms of, 161, 240. 

Attributive, 148. 

Auxiliaries of, 156. 

Complement of, 51. 

Complete and Incomplete, 50-55, 
146. 

Copulative, 54, 148. 

Copulative and attributive, 146-148. 

Defective, 145. 

followed by two objects, 243. 

Forms of, 138. 

Future tense of, 129, 130. 

in past tense followed by root in- 
finitive, 115. 

Indirect objects of, 243, 244. 

Intransitive, 48-50, 53. 

Number and person of, 157. 

Object of, 48. 

Passive form of, 132, 160. 

Present and past tenses of, 125- 
127. 

Principal, 217. 

Principal parts of, 139. 

Progressive form of, 131. 

Regular and Irregular, 138-145. 

Relation of, to conjunctive and per- 
sonal pronouns as subject, 196. 

Roots of, 127-129. 

Transitive, 48, 50, 52. 

Various assertions of, 46. 
Very, Uses of, 258. 
Voice, Active and passive, 149-152. 
Vowels, 9, 10. 



WItat, antecedent never expressed 
198. 
conjunctive pronoun, 192, 198, 

213. 
equivalent to that ivhich, 198. 
interrogative introductory pro- 
noun, 213. 
introducing noun clauses, 211. 
used as adjective, 198. 
used in phrases, 215. 
Uses of, 258. 
Whdtever, antecedent never expressed, 

198. 
When, conjunctive adverb, 204. 
introducing noun clauses, 211. 
interrogative conjunctive adverb, 
213. 
Whence, interrogative conjunctive ad- 
verb, 213. ^ 
introducing noun clauses, 211. 
Where, conjunctive adverb, 204. 

interrogative conjunctive adverb, 

213. 
introducing noun clauses, 211. 
Uses of, 258. 
Whether, introducing noun clauses, 
211 and n. 1. 
subordinate conjunction, 213. 
Which, conjunctive pronoun, 75, 1<)2, 
253. 
interrogative introductory pro- 
noun, 213, 
introducing noun clauses, 211. 
used as adjective, 198. 
used in phrases, 215. 
Uses of, 192, 193, 258. 
While, conjunctive adverb, 204. 

Uses of, 258. 
Whither, introducing noun clauses, 

211. 
Who, always used as subject, 200. 
conjunctive pronoun, t5, 192, 253. 
interrogative introductory pro- 
noun, 213. 
introducing noun clauses, 211. 
Uses of, 258. 
Whom, always used as object, 200. 
introducing noun clauses, 211. 
used in phrases, 215. 
Whose, introducing noun clauses, 
211. 
used as adjective, 198. 
used in phrases, 215. 
used in possessive instead of ivhich 
and that, 194. 
Why, introducing noun clauses, 211. 
Will, auxiliarj^ verb, 217. 

distinguished from shall, 129, 130. 
expressing futurity, 222, 223. 
Interrogative use of, 160. 



288 



ENGLISH GRAMiMAR. 



Will, principal verb, 219. 

with root infinitive, '219. 
Will have witli perfect participle, 

224. 
With, followed by object, KiG. 
Word buildino, i(i8-172, 259-2G3, 27G- 

280. 
Words, classed according to use, 20, 
78, 25(5. 
Compound, 81-83, 1G8, 1G9. 
Etymology of, 1G8-172, 259-2G3. 



Words, Primitive, derivative, and com- 
pound, .168, 169. 

Root, 94. 

Uses of in sentences, 25. 
Would, auxiliary verb, 217. 

expressing past action, 222. 

Meaning of, 221. 

Use of, 219. 
Written Language, 13. 

Yet, Uses of, 258. 



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